The parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, has shaken the beekeeping and pollination industries since its spread from its native host, the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana), to the naïve European honey bee (A. mellifera) used commercially for pollination and honey production around the globe. Varroa is the greatest threat to honey bee health. Worrying observations include increasing acaricide resistance in the varroa population and sinking economic treatment thresholds, suggesting that the mites or their vectored viruses are becoming more virulent. Highly infested weak colonies facilitate mite dispersal and disease transmission to stronger and healthier colonies. Here, we review recent developments in the biology, pathology and management of varroa, and integrate older knowledge that is less well known.

The Chinese honeybee (Apis cerana cerana) sacbrood virus (CSBV) causes death of larvae and colony collapse, and could damage the beekeeping industry in China. We sequenced complete genomes of CSBV strains derived from the Maerkang area, Wenjiang area, and Wanyuan area of Sichuan province of China. The genome length of CSBV strains from Sichuan was 8863bp, and it contained one complete Open Reading Frame of a gene with 8544 bp that encoded a protein with 2848 amino acids. The (G+C) % and (A+T) % composition ranged from 40.6 to 40.7 and 59.3 to 59.4, respectively. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using the three CSBV strains and previously reported SBV and CSBV sequences from other regions. We found that viral strains clustered based on their region of origin and host species. The genetic sequences of the CSBV strain from Maerkang were 98.7% and 99.6% similar to CSBV strains from Wanyuan and Wenjiang, respectively. In addition, CSBV from Maerkang had 88.4%-95.2% sequence similarity to previously published genomes of CSBV or SBV from other areas. The VP1 gene sequenced in our study had a 43 bp deletion compared to VP1 sequences of CSBV from other regions in Asia. We detected 10 antigenic determinants on the VP1 protein of CSBV form Aba. Our study provides new insight into the diversity of CSBV strains in China and may help with identifying methods to prevent infection of honeybee colonies.

Flaviviruses replicate in membranous factories associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The replication rate generates a high polyprotein integration that can contribute to ER stress. Therefore, the host cell can develop an Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) to this protein accumulation which will stimulate appropriate cellular responses in the infectious context (Adaptation, autophagy or cell death). These different stress responses can help to overcome the virus and usually support antiviral strategies initiated by infected cells. In the present study, we investigated the capacity of ZIKA virus (ZIKV) to induce ER stress in epithelial A549 cells with a special focus on the causal factors behind it. We observed that the cells respond to ZIKV infection by implementing an UPR through activation of the IRE1 and PERK pathway but surprisingly without activation of the ATF6 branch. When we examined the effects of modulating the ER stress response we found that UPR inducers significantly inhibit ZIKV replication. Interestingly, our findings provide evidence that ZIKV can altered the UPR in order to escape to the host cell defense system.

Nipah virus (NiV) is responsible to cause various outbreaks in Asian countries, with latest from Kerala state of India. Till date there is no drug available despite its urgent requirement. In the current study, we have provided a computational one-stop solution for NiV inhibitors. We have developed “anti-Nipah” web resource, which comprised of a data repository, prediction method, and data visualization modules. The database comprised of 313 (181 unique) inhibitors from different strains and outbreaks of NiV extracted from research articles and patents. However, the quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) based predictors were accomplished using classification approach employing 10-fold cross validation through support vector machine with 120 (68p + 52n) inhibitors. The overall predictor showed the accuracy and Matthew’s correlation coefficient of 88.89% and 0.77 on training/testing dataset respectively. The independent validation dataset also performed equally well. The data visualization modules from chemical clustering and principal component analyses displayed the diversity in the NiV inhibitors. Therefore, our web platform would be of immense help to the researchers working in developing effective inhibitors against NiV. The user-friendly webserver is freely available on URL: http://bioinfo.imtech.res.in/manojk/antinipah/

There is an ongoing global pandemic of human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection that results in substantial annual morbidity and mortality. In Australia, RSV is the major cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRI). Nevertheless, little is known about the extent and origins of genetic diversity of RSV in Australia, nor the factors that shape this diversity. We conducted a genome-scale analysis of RSV infections in New South Wales (NSW). RSV genomes were successfully sequenced for 144 specimens collected between 2010-2016. Of these, 64 belonged to the RSVA and 80 to the RSVB subtype. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a wide diversity of RSV lineages within NSW and that both subtypes evolved rapidly in a strongly clock-like manner, with mean rates of approximately 6-8 x 10^-4 nucleotide substitutions per site per year. There was only weak evidence for geographic clustering of sequences, indicative of fluid patterns of transmission within the infected population, and no evidence of any clustering by patient age such that viruses in the same lineages circulate through the entire host population. Importantly, we show that both subtypes circulated concurrently in NSW with multiple introductions into the Australian population in each year, and only limited evidence for multi-year persistence.

As revealed by the recent resurgence of yellow fever virus (YFV) activity in the tropical regions of Africa and South America, YFV control measures need urgent rethinking. Over the last decade, most reported outbreaks occurred in, or eventually reached, areas of low vaccination coverage but suitable for virus transmission, with an unprecedented risk of expansion to densely populated territories in Africa, South America and Asia. As reflected in the World Health Organization’s initiative launched in 2017, it is high time to strengthen epidemiological surveillance to monitor accurately, viral dissemination and redefine vaccination recommendation areas. Vector-control and immunisation measures need to be adapted and vaccine manufacturing must be reconciled with an increasing demand. We will have to face more YF cases in the upcoming years hence, improving disease management through the development of efficient treatments will prove most beneficial. Undoubtedly, these developments will require in-depth descriptions of YFV biology at molecular, physiological and ecological levels. This second section of the two-part review describes the current state of knowledge and gaps regarding the molecular biology of YFV, along with an overview of the tools that can be used to manage the disease at the individual, local and global levels.

The recent resurgence of yellow fever virus (YFV) activity in the tropical regions of Africa and South America has sparked renewed interest in this infamous arboviral disease. YFV had been a human plague for centuries prior to the identification of its urban transmission vector, the Aedes aegypti mosquito species, and the development of an efficient live-attenuated vaccine, the YF-17D strain. The combination of vector-control measures and vaccination campaigns drastically reduced YFV incidence in humans on many occasions, but the virus never ceased to circulate in the forest, through its sylvatic invertebrate vector(s) and vertebrate host(s). Outbreaks recently reported in Central Africa (2015-2016) and Brazil (since late 2016), reached considerable proportions in terms of spatial distribution and total numbers of cases, with multiple exports, including to China. In turn, questions regarding the likeliness of occurrence of large urban YFV outbreaks in the Americas or of a successful import of YFV to Asia are currently resurfacing. This two-part review describes the current state of knowledge and gaps regarding the molecular biology and transmission dynamics of YFV, along with an overview of the tools that can be used to manage the disease at the individual, local and global levels.

Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is one of the most widespread and economically important virus infecting both crop and ornamental species of the family Brassicaceae. TuMV isolates can be classified to five phylogenetic lineages, basal-B, basal-BR, Asian-BR, world-B and Orchis. To understand the genetic structure of TuMV from radish in China, the 3′-terminal genome of 90 TuMV isolates were determined and analyzed with other Chinese isolates available. The results showed that the Chinese TuMV isolates from radish formed three groups: Asian-BR, basal-BR and world-B. More than half of these isolates (52.54%) were clustered to basal-BR group, and could be further divided into three sub-groups. The TuMV basal-BR isolates in the sub-groups I and II were genetically homologous with Japanese ones, while those in sub-group III formed a distinct lineage. Sub-populations of TuMV basal-BR II and III were new emergent and in a state of expansion. The Chinese TuMV radish populations were under negative selection. Gene flow between TuMV populations from Tai’an, Weifang and Changchun was frequent.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a common cause of acute hepatitis worldwide, accounting for approximately 25% of deaths among pregnant women. We previously reported that pregnancy serum facilitates HEV replication in vitro. However, the differences in host cells with HEV infection induced by pregnancy serum and fetal bovine serum (FBS) are unclear. In this study, differentially expressed proteins were identified in HEV-infected hepatoma cells (HepG2) supplemented with different sera by using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation. Proteomic analysis indicated that HEV infection significantly induced 1014 differentially expressed proteins in HEV-infected HepG2 cells when supplemented with FBS compared with pregnancy serum. Further validation by Western blot confirmed that filamin A, heat-shock proteins 70 and 90, Cytochrome c, and Thioredoxin were associated with HEV infection. This comparative analysis provides an important basis to further investigate HEV pathogenesis in pregnant women and HEV replication.

Dengue virus (DENV), the causative agent of dengue fever (DF), is one of the most important mosquito-borne viruses that can infect humans. Although much effort has been made on prevention and control of dengue, there are currently no anti-viral drugs or worldwide approved vaccines yet. In this study, we immunized six-week-old Balb/c mice with DNA vaccine candidates E and NS1-2a of DENV serotype 2 or the combination of them (E+NS1-2a) via an electroporation (EP)-assisted intramuscular gene delivery system and evaluated the immune response and protection. The highest specific antibody titres and cytokine levels secreted by splenocytes as well as the highest survival rate were observed in the E+NS1-2a group, followed by E group and NS1-2a group. Our data suggested that the combination of E and NS1-2a delivered by EP may be a superior preventive strategy against DENV.

Determination of antibody titre of dogs vaccinated against canine distemper in Jos North and South local Government Areas of Plateau State was carried out by collection of sera of vaccinated dogs and administration of well-structured questionnaires to dog owners. The samples collected were analyzed using the immune-blot ELISA Kit to determining the antibody titre (immunoglobulin G). It indicated that dogs vaccinated against the disease mounted adequate protective immunity. The result revealed that 54 (90.0%) of the sampled dogs have protective immunity, with those given more than one dose having higher level of protective antibody. Statistically, the result showed that the antibody titre did not differ significantly in relation to immunity and sex, breed, age and location but significant difference was seen in relation to number of primary vaccination. The result also revealed that those dogs that received booster doses (secondary vaccination) had more protective antibody. The study was aimed at evaluating the antibody titre of dogs vaccinated against canine distemper in Jos, Plateau State.

The replication of species A rotaviruses (RVAs) and other RNA viruses involves recruitment of and inter-action with the cellular organelles lipid droplets (LDs), both physically and functionally. Inhibition of en-zymes involved in the cellular fatty acid biosynthesis pathway or of cellular lipases that degrade LDs re-duces the functions of ‘viral factories’ (viroplasms for rotaviruses or replication compartments of other RNA viruses) and decreases the production of infectious progeny virus. Similarly, disturbance of the cellular lipid homeostasis in various ways blocks the replication of flaviviruses (hepatitis C viruses, Zikavirus, others), HIV-1, SARS-CoV-2, picornaviruses, noroviruses, influenza viruses and other negative-strand RNA viruses.

Despite being small and simple structured in comparison to their victims, virus particles have the potential to harm severly and even kill highly developed species such as humans. To face upcoming virus pandemics, detailed quantitative biophysical understanding of intracellular virus replication mechanisms is inevitable. Unveiling the relationship of form and function might allow to determine putative attack points relevant for the systematic development of direct antiviral agents (DAA) and potent vaccines. Biophysical investigations of spatio-temporal dynamics of intracellular virus replication so far are rare. We are developing a framework to allow for fully spatio-temporal resolved virus replication dynamics simulations based on partial differential equations models (PDE) and evaluated with advanced numerical mathematical methods on leading supercomputers. This study presents an advanced highly nonlinear model of the genome replication cycle of a specific RNA virus, the Hepatitis C virus (HCV). The diffusion-reaction model mimics the interplay of the major components of the viral RNA (vRNA) cycle, namely non structural viral proteins (NSP), vRNA and a generic host factor. Technically, we couple surface PDEs (sufPDEs) on the 3D embedded 2D Endoplasmatic Reticulum (ER) manifold with PDEs in the 3D membranous web (MW) and cytosol volume. (The MWs are the replication factories growing on the ER induced by NSPs.) The sufPDE/PDE model is evaluated at realistic reconstructed cell geometries which are based on experimental data. The simulations couple the effects of NSPs which are restricted to the ER surface with effects appearing in the volume. The volume effects include the host factor supply from the cytosol and the MW dynamics. Special emphasis is put to the exchange of components between ER surface, MWs and cytosol volume. As the vRNA spatial properties are not fully understood so far in experiment, the model allows for vRNA both restricted to the ER and moving in the cytosol. The visualization of the simulation resembles a look into some sort of fully 3D resolved “in silico microscopes” to mirror and complement in vitro / in vivo experiments for the intracellular vRNA cycle dynamics. The output data are quantitatively consistent with experimental data and provoke advanced experimental studies to validate the model.

The global COVID-19 pandemic claiming global spread continues to evolve, now to the verge of a third wave of outbreak possibly caused by the novel variants of concern of severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). The test positivity rate (TPR) and case fatal-ity rate (CFR) have increased steeply in the second wave of COVID-19 compared to the first. From the example of Kerala, a state in southern India, positivity increased from 1.33% at the peak of wave one in 10th June 2020 to 13.45% during 10th June 2021 in the second wave of pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 is an enveloped single-stranded RNA virus. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme-2 (ACE-2) is a trans membrane surface protein present on multiple types of cells in the human body to which the viral spike protein attaches. Genetic variations in the SARS-CoV-2 and ACE2 receptor can affect the transmission, clinical manifestations, mortality and the efficacy of drugs and vaccines for COVID-19. Mutations are the primary cause of genetic variations. Given the high TPR and CFR, it is necessary to understand the variations of SARS-CoV-2 and cellular receptors of SARS-CoV-2 at the molecular level. In this review, we summarize the impact of genetic and ep-igenetic variations in determining COVID-19 pathogenesis and disease outcome.

Propolis, or bee glue, is a complex mixture of resins from plant buds and flowers, wax, pollen and bee saliva. It also contains various vitamins, essential oils, mineral salts, trace elements, hormones and enzymes. It has been found that propolis possesses antimicrobial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. We have studied the antiviral activity of six extracts of Bulgarian propolis collected from six districts of Bulgaria. The study was conducted against structurally different viruses: Human coronavirus strain OC-43 (HCoV OC-43) and Human respiratory syncytial virus type 5 (HRSV-5) (enveloped RNA viruses), Human herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) (enveloped DNA virus), Human rhinovirus type 14 (HRV-14) (non-enveloped RNA virus) and Human adenovirus type 2 (HadV-2) (non-enveloped DNA virus). The influence of the extracts on the internal replicative cycle of viruses was determined using the cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition test. The virucidal capacity, their influence on the adsorption stage and their protective effect on uninfected cells were also determined by the end-point dilution method. Residual viral infectivity in propolis samples was compared to untreated controls and Δlgs were calculated. When administered during viral replication, most propolis extracts demonstrated the strongest activity against HCoV OC-43. The influence of propolis extracts on the viability of extracellular virions was expressed to a different degree in the various viruses studied, and the effect was significantly stronger in those with an envelope. Almost all extracts significantly inhibited the step of herpes virus adsorption to the host cell, and some of them showed a protective effect on healthy cells before they were subjected to herpes infection. Our results enlarge the knowledge about the action of propolis and could open new perspectives for its application in viral infections treatment.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) proteins are a diverse and evolutionarily conserved family of cytidine deaminases that provide a variety of functions from tissue-specific gene expression and immunoglobulin diversity to control of viruses and retrotransposons. APOBEC family expansion has been documented among mammalian species, suggesting a powerful selection for their activity. Enzymes with a duplicated zinc-binding domain often have catalytically active and inactive domains, yet both have antiviral function. Although APOBEC antiviral function was discovered through hypermutation of HIV-1 genomes lacking an active Vif protein, much evidence indicates that APOBECs also inhibit virus replication through mechanisms other than mutagenesis. Multiple steps of the viral replication cycle may be affected, although nucleic acid replication is a primary target. Packaging of APOBECs into virions was first noted with HIV-1, yet is not a prerequisite for viral inhibition. APOBEC antagonism may occur in viral producer and recipient cells. Signatures of APOBEC activity include G-to-A and C-to-T mutations in a particular sequence context. The importance of APOBEC activity for viral inhibition is reflected in the identification of numerous viral factors, including Vif, which are dedicated to antagonism of these deaminases. Such viral antagonists often are only partially successful, leading to selection for viral variants.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes the highly contagious foot-and-mouth disease, which is characterized by the appearance of vesicles in and around the mouth and feet of cloven-hoofed animals. BHK21 cells are the cell line of choice for the propagation of FMDV for vaccine production world-wide but vary in their susceptibility for different FMDV strains. Previous studies showed that the FMDV resistance of a certain BHK cell line can be overcome by using a closely related but permissive cell line for the pre-adaptation of the virus, but the adapted strains were found to harbor several capsid mutations. In this study, these adaptive mutations were introduced into the original Asia-1 Shamir isolate individually or in combination to create a panel of 17 Asia-1 mutants by reverse genetics and examine the effects of the mutations on receptor usage, viral growth, immunogenicity and stability. A single amino acid exchange from glutamic acid to lysine at position 202 in VP1 turned out to be of major importance for productive infection of the suspension cell line BHK-2P. In consequence, two traditionally passage-derived strains and two recombinant viruses with a minimum set of mutations were tested in vivo. While the passaged-derived viruses showed a reduced particle stability, the genetically modified viruses were more stable but did not confer a protective immune response against the original virus isolate.

Complex systems exhibit critical thresholds at which they transition among alternative phases. Complex systems theory has been applied to analyze disease progression, distinguishing three stages along progression: (i) a normal non-infected state, (ii) a pre-disease state in which the host is infected and responds; therapeutic interventions could still be effective, (iii) an irreversible state, where the system is seriously threatened. The Dynamical Network Biomarker (DNB) theory sought for early-warnings of the transition from health to disease. Such DNBs might range from individual genes to complex structures in transcriptional regulatory or protein-protein interaction networks. Here we revisit transcriptomic data obtained during infection of tobacco plants with tobacco etch potyvirus to identify DNBs signaling the transition from mild/reversible to severe/irreversible disease. We identified genes showing a sudden transition in expression along disease. Some of these genes cluster in modules that show the properties of DNBs. These modules contain both genes known to be involved in response to pathogens (e.g., ADH2, CYP19, ERF1, KAB1, LAP1, MBF1C, PR1, or TPS5) and other genes not previously related to biotic stress responses (e.g., ABCI6, BBX21, NAP1, OSM34, or ZPN1).

Neurologic symptoms associated with Long COVID result from the persistent infection of SARS-CoV-2 in the nasal neuroepithelial cells, leading to inflammation in the central nervous sys-tem (CNS). As of today, there is no evidence that vaccines or medications can clear the persistent viral infection in the olfactory mucosa. Recently published clinical data demonstrate that only 5% of Long COVID anosmia patients have fully recovered during the past 2 years and 10.4% of COVID patients are still symptomatic 18 months post infection. Our group demonstrated that ep-igallocatechin-3-gallate-monopalmitate (EC16m) nanoformulations possess strong antiviral activ-ity against human coronavirus, suggesting this green tea-derived compound in nanoparticle for-mulations could be developed as an intranasally delivered new drug targeting the persistent SARS-CoV-2 infection, as well as inflammation and oxidative stress in the CNS, leading to resto-ration of neurologic functions. The objective of the current study is to evaluate the mucociliary safety of the EC16m nasal nanoformulations and the efficacy against human coronavirus. Meth-ods: nanoparticle size and Zeta potential were measured using the ZetaView Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis system; mucociliary safety was determined using MucilAir Human Nasal Epi-thelium Model; contact antiviral activity and post-infection inhibition against OC43 viral strain were assessed by TCID50 assay for cytopathic effect on MRC-5 cells. Results: the saline-based EC16 mucoadhesive nanoformulations containing 0.005 to 0.02% w/v EC16m have no significant difference in comparison to saline (0.9% NaCl) on tissue integrity, cytotoxicity, and cilia beat fre-quency. A 5-minute contact inactivated 99.9% of the β-coronavirus OC43. OC43 viral replication was inhibited by >99% after infected MAR-5 cells were treated with one of the formulations. Con-clusion: the saline-based novel EC16m mucoadhesive nasal nanoformulations rapidly inactivated human coronavirus with mucociliary safety measurements comparable to saline, a solution widely used for nasal applications.

A decade or so of research led to the conclusion, in 2022, that the Soil Realm is home to ~2.1 x 10²⁴ taxa and supports >99.9% of global species biodiversity, mostly Bacteria or other microbes based upon topographic field data. A subsequent 2023 soil biodiversity report tabulated a central value of just 1.04 × 10¹⁰ taxa and claimed soils had 59±15% (i.e., 44–74%) of total species on Earth, incidentally confirming upper values of ~90% for Bacteria. Incompatibility of these two studies is reviewed, supporting the prior global biodiversity data with a vast majority of species inhabiting soil, this despite excluding virus entities (now with >5 x 10³¹ virions and up to 10²⁶ species, 80–90% being in soils). The true status of Oligochaeta (earthworms) and other taxa marked “?” in the 2023 paper are clarified. Although soil biota totals are raised enormously, inordinate threats and the reality of species extinctions yet pertain, specifically to those biota – such as microbes and earthworms – essential for rich, healthy soils that house & nourish almost all the Tree of Life presently on Earth.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a re-emerging flavivirus, primarily circulating among avian hosts and mosquito vectors, causing periodic outbreaks in humans and horses, often leading to neuroinvasive disease and mortality. Spain has reported several outbreaks, most notably in 2020 with seventy-seven human cases and eight fatalities. WNV has been serologically detected in horses in the Community of Madrid, but to our knowledge, it has never been reported from wild birds in this region. To estimate the seroprevalence of WNV in wild birds and horses in the Community of Madrid, 159 wild birds at a wildlife rescue center and 25 privately owned equines were sampled. Serum from thirteen birds (8.2%) and one equine (4.0%) tested positive with a WNV competitive ELISA designed for WNV antibodies detection, but sensitive to cross-reacting antibodies to other flaviviruses. VNT confirmed WNV antibodies in four bird samples (2.5%), and antibodies to undetermined flavivirus in four additional samples. One equine sample (4.0%) tested positive for WNV, although this horse previously resided in a WN-endemic area. ELISA positive birds included both migratory and resident species, juveniles and adults. Two seropositive juvenile birds suggest local flavivirus transmission within the Community of Madrid, while WNV seropositive adult birds may have been infected outside Madrid. The potential circulation of flaviviruses, including WNV, in birds in Madrid Community raises concerns, although further surveillance in mosquitos, wild birds and horses in Madrid is necessary to establish the extent of transmission, and the principal species involved.

(1) Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) viral load (VL) is useful in determining treatment eligibility, however, due to high costs associated with the test, hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) is recommended as a proxy for HBV VL in resource-limited settings. (2) Methods: We used 299 archived plasma samples with hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), HBeAg, and HBV VL (cut-off of 20,000 IU/mL and 200,000 IU/mL) results from people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH). HBeAg and HBV VL results were analyzed to evaluate the use of HBeAg to determine CHB treatment eligibility and qualification of HBV prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) prophylaxis for the first time in Botswana. (3) Results: Approximately 70.8% and 87.5% of participants with HBeAg-positive serology had HBV viral loads ≥20,000 IU/mL and 200,000 IU/mL respectively. Using logistic regression, the odds of having a qualifying HBV VL for CHB treatment and PMTCT prophylaxis were respectively 55.5 and 110.4 times higher in participants with positive HBeAg serology indicating a statistically significant association between HBeAg status and HBV VL. (4) Conclusions: HBeAg detection may not always correlate with high HBV VL, warranting further research focusing on this association, and other biomarkers that correlate better with HBV VL.

Oncolytic virotherapy is a promising immunotherapy approach for cancer treatment, utilizing viruses to preferentially infect and eliminate cancer cells while stimulating immune responses. In this review we synthesize current literature on the molecular circuits of immune sensing and response to oncolytic virotherapy; focusing on viral DNA or RNA sensing by infected cells, cytokine and danger-associated signal sensing by neighboring cells, and subsequent downstream activation of immune pathways. The sequential sense-and-response mechanisms involve the triggering of molecular sensors by viruses or infected cells to activate transcription factors and related genes for a breadth of immune responses. We describe how molecular signals induced in the tumor upon virotherapy can trigger diverse immune signaling pathways, activating both antigen-presenting cell-based innate and T cell-based adaptive immune responses. Insights into these complex mechanisms provide valuable knowledge for enhancing oncolytic virotherapy strategies.

An influenza A virus (H3N2) with an envelope with the same structure as COVID-19 was used for antiviral testing of material surfaces, in comparison with some results of feline calicivirus. The evaluation method used was the film adhesion method, in which the virus solution is placed on the material and adhered to it using a film. The evaluation method was based on the film adhesion method, in which the virus solution is placed on the material and adhered with a film, and the plaque method, in which the cell virus is allowed to infect the material and form plaques, but the appropriate virus concentration must be adjusted to observe the plaques. When not under that restriction, the plaques are often incomplete; this is observed. For this reason, this study applied an area measurement method that can reflect viral activity even when plaques are not obtained. This study revealed that different types of metallic materials have different antiviral properties. Specifically, the antiviral activity of iron, carbon steel, and nickel was relatively high, while that of stainless steel and titanium was relatively low. The order of antiviral activity was as follows: Fe, SS400, Ni, SUS316L, SUS304, and Ti.

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus disease 2 (RHDV2) emerged in the United States in 2018 and has spread in both domestic and wild rabbits nationwide. The virus has a high mortality rate and can spread rapidly between infected individuals. Vaccination against RHDV2 provides the best protection against disease and should be considered by all rabbit owners. Here, we investigate the duration of immunity provided by vaccination with the Medgene Platform conditionally licensed commercial vaccine 6 months following the initial series. Rabbits received either the vaccination or a placebo and were challenged with RHDV2 6 months later. All vaccinated rabbits survived challenge whereas 18/19 non-vaccinated controls succumbed to infection within 10 or fewer days post-challenge. These results demonstrate lasting immunity following vaccination with the Medgene RHDV2 vaccine.

Genotypic testing is often recommended to improve the management of patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). To help combat this major pandemic, next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques are widely used to analyse resistance to antiretroviral drugs. In this study, we used a Vela Sentosa kit, which is usually used for the Ion Torrent personal genome machine (PGM) platform, to sequence HIV using the Illumina Miseq platform. After RNA extraction and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), minor modifications were applied to the Vela Sentosa kit to adapt it to Illumina Miseq platform. Analysis of the results showed the same mutations present in the samples using both sequencing platforms. The total number of reads varied from 185,069 to 752,343 and from 642,162 to 2,074,028 in the Ion Torrent PGM platform and the Illumina Miseq platform, respectively. The average depth was 21955 and 46856 for Ion Torrent PGM and Illumina Miseq platforms, respectively. The cost of sequencing a run of eight samples was closely similar between the two platforms (about 1 790 United States dollars [USD] for Illumina Miseq and about 1833 USD for Ion Torrent PGM platform). We have shown for the first time that it is possible to adapt and use the Vela Sentosa kit for the Illumina Miseq platform to obtain high quality results with a similar cost.

Using two infectious DNA clones originating from isolates obtained in Kenya, a genetic investigation of maize streak virus (MSV) pathogenicity was carried out. The susceptible Pioneer hybrid 3379 was used to investigate the virulence of kernels administered through vascular puncture inoculation. Mild [pMSV-KL (mild)] and severe [pMSV-Km(severe)] parental infectious MSV DNA clones were linked with considerable changes in the severity of chlorotic streaks and stunting of seedlings. Using restriction endonuclease fragments, chimeric clones were created from parental clones in order to investigate the genetic elements influencing these changes. Restrictions mapping was used to validate clone identities. For genomic portions encoding the replication initiator (Rep and RepA), movement (MP), and coat (CP) protein ORFs as well as for those containing non-coding long (LIR) and short intergenic regions (SIR), putative virulence determinants were discovered. Recombinant clones with intermediate symptoms included LIRs together with the first 189 nt of the Rep/RepA ORFs from the pMSV-Km (Severe) and pMSV-KL (Mild) ORFs. Symptoms identical to those of parental clones were produced by complementary substitution of the Rep/RepA ORF. When compared to pMSV-Km (Severe), the recombinant clone having MP, CP, and SIR genome sequences from pMSV-KL(Mild) and LIR, Rep, and RepA genome sequences from pMSV-Km (Severe) displayed much more severe symptoms and accumulated greater concentrations. The reciprocal clone, in contrast, displayed much milder signs and virus titers than pMSV-KL(Mild). The level of leaf chlorosis and plant stunting were linked with viral accumulation. These findings are consistent with the idea that MSV virulence is a polymorphic feature involving complementary sense genes (LIR and SIR) and the virion.

Zika Virus (ZIKV) is a pathogenic member of the flavivirus family, with several unique charac-teristics. Unlike any other arbovirus, ZIKV can be transmitted sexually and maternally, and thus produce congenital syndromes (CZS) due to its neurotropism. This challenges the search for safe active molecules that can protect pregnant women and their fetuses. In this context, and in the ab-sence of any existing treatment, it seemed worthwhile to test whether the known cytoprotective properties of adiponectin and its pharmacological analog, AdipoRon, could influence the outcome of ZIKV infection. We showed that both AdipoRon and adiponectin could significantly reduce in vitro infection of A549 epithelial cells, a well-known cell model for flaviviruses infection studies. This effect was particularly observed when a pre-treatment was carried out. Conversely, ZIKV revealed an ability to down-regulate adiponectin receptor expression and thereby limit adi-ponectin signaling.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a global important mosquito-borne Flavivirus causing West Nile disease (WND). In Libya, evidence of WNV circulation has been reported in humans but never in animals. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of the WNV infection in horses and dogs in Libya. A total of 574 and 63 serum samples from horses and dogs, respectively, were collected from healthy unvaccinated animals between 2016 - 2019. A commercially available competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) kit was initially used to test the collected samples for the presence of WNV Ig-G antibodies. Positive and doubtful sera were also tested by using the more specific virus neutralization assays to confirm whether the ELISA positive results were due to WNV or Usutu virus (USUV) antibodies. The seroprevalence of WNV IgG ELISA antibodies was 13.2% (76/574) and 30.2% (19/63) in horses and dogs, respectively. Virus neutralization test (VNT) showed that 77.5% (62/80) and 89.5% (17/19) of positive and doubtful horse serum samples and dogs serum samples, respectively, were positive with WNV neutralising titers ranging from 1:10 to 1:640. The results of the present study provided novel evidence about the WNV circulation in Libya.

Aujeszky Disease Virus (ADV) is a double-stranded DNA virus with a lipoprotein envelope. The natural hosts of the infection are suidae, but the virus can infect many other mammals. The gold-standard method identified by the WOAH for the diagnosis of Aujeszky disease is ELISA method. The objective of this study was to compare the performance of meat juice and oral fluid matrices using a commercial ELISA kit designed for serum. A total of 80 blood and oral fluid samples were collected from four pig farms selected for this study. Diaphragm muscle samples of about 100 g and blood samples were collected from 213 animals at the abattoir. These biological matrices were collected from the same animals and tested using a competitive ELISA kit to detect antibodies against ADV. The relative accuracy of the meat juice compared to that of the serum was 96.7% (95% CI: 93.3%-98.7%), with 206 correct results out of 213. The relative accuracy of the oral fluid compared to that of the serum was 61.3% (95% CI: 49.7%-71.9%), with 58 correct results out of 80. Meat juice has a better combination of sensitivity and specificity than oral fluid. The usage of meat juice in routine diagnostic examinations could be achieved after further investigations to optimize the procedure.

Influenza A (IAV) is a major human respiratory pathogen, causing illness, hospitalizations, and mortality annually worldwide. IAV is also a zoonotic pathogen with a multitude of hosts, allowing for interspecies transmission, reassortment events, and the emergence of novel pandemics, as was seen in 2009 with the emergence of a swine origin H1N1 (pdmH1N1) virus into humans, causing the first influenza pandemic of the 21st century. While the 2009 pandemic was considered to have high morbidity and low mortality, studies have linked the pdmH1N1 virus and its gene segments to increased disease in humans and animal models. Genetic components of the pdmH1N1 virus currently circulate in the swine population, reassorting with endemic swine viruses that co-circulate and occasionally spillover into humans. This is evidenced by the regular detection of variant swine IAVs in humans associated with state fairs and other intersections of humans and swine. Defining genetic changes that support species adaptation, virulence, and cross-species transmission, as well as mutations that enhance or attenuate these features will improve our understanding of influenza biology, aid in surveillance and virus risk assessment, and guide the establishment of counter measures for emerging viruses. Here, we review current understanding of determinants of specific IAV phenotypes, focusing on the fitness, transmission, and virulence determinants that have been identified in swine IAVs and/or in relation to the 2009 pdmH1N1 virus.

The study aimed to manage and to analyse the results of the laboratory tests, routinallypractice for hepatitis C diagnosis, using blood tests. Statistical analysis of this study results, was performed using the laboratory informatic system. The results of the study are substantial and intricate reffering to comparision between two methods concretlly ELISA method (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and chemiluminescence methods and their results. Good to know our opinion that RT-PCR technique, it is considered proper for the diagnosis of HCV ( Hepatitis C virus).

The endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) is an essential molecular machinery in eukaryotic cells that facilitates the invagination of endosomal membranes, leading to the formation of multivesicular bodies (MVBs). It participates in various cellular processes, including lipid bilayer remodeling, cytoplasmic separation, autophagy, membrane fission and remodeling, plasma membrane repair, as well as the invasion, budding, and release of certain enveloped viruses. The ESCRT complex consists of five complexes, ESCRT-0 to ESCRT-III and VPS4, along with several accessory proteins. ESCRT-0 to ESCRT-II form soluble complexes that shuttle between the cytoplasm and membranes, mainly responsible for recruiting and transporting membrane proteins and viral particles, as well as recruiting ESCRT-III for membrane neck scission. ESCRT-III, a soluble monomer, directly participates in vesicle scission and release, while VPS4 hydrolyzes ATP to provide energy for ESCRT-III complex disassembly, enabling recycling. Studies have confirmed the hijacking of ESCRT complexes by enveloped viruses to facilitate their entry, replication, and budding. Recent research has focused on the interaction between various components of the ESCRT complex and different viruses. In this review, we discuss how different viruses hijack specific ESCRT regulatory proteins to impact the viral life cycle, aiming to explore commonalities in the interaction between viruses and the ESCRT system.

Herein, we developed a highly sensitive and specific bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC)-based influenza A virus (IAV) sensing system created by combining a galactose/glucose-binding protein (GGBP) with an N-terminal large domain (YN1-172) and a C-terminal small domain (YC173-239) of enhanced yellow fluorescence protein (eYFP). The GGBP-based BiFC reporter exhibits the fluorescence reconstitution as a result of conformational changes in GGBP when lactose, derived from 6’-silalyllactose used as a substrate for neuraminidase (NA), binds to GGBP in the presence of IAV. The system showed a linear dynamic range from 1 x 100 TCID50/mL to 1 x 107 TCID50/mL, with a detection limit of 4 x 101 TCID50/mL for IAV (H1N1), demonstrating ultra-high sensitivity. Our system exhibited fluorescence intensity enhancements in the presence of IAV, while displaying weak fluorescence signals when exposed to NA-deficient viruses such as RSV A, RSV B, adenovirus and rhinovirus, thereby indicating selective responses for IAV detection. Taken together, our system provides a simple, highly sensitive and specific IAV detection platform based on BiFC capable of detecting the ligand-induced protein conformational changes, obviating the need for virus culture or RNA extraction processes.

Piceatannol is a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound that is widely found in grapes, blueberries, mushrooms, passion fruit and other edible fruits and vegetables. It has a variety of biological activities and pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, antiaging, antiviral, antitumor, anticancer, antiatherosclerosis, antiparasitic, immunoregulatory, and cardiovascular protection effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the antiherpesvirus effects of piceatannol. Pseudorabies virus (PRV) belongs to the family Herpesviridae. PRV has a wide host range and can cause cytopathic effects (CPEs) in PK-15 cells. Therefore, PRV was used as a model to study the antiherpesvirus effect of piceatannol. In this study, we evaluated the antiviral activity of piceatannol against PRV in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that piceatannol could reatrain PRV multiplication in PK-15 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) was 0.0307 mg/mL, the IC50 was 0.0307 mg/mL, and the selectivity index (SI, CC50/IC50) was 3.68. The addition of piceatannol at different stages of PRV infection inhibited the viral adsorption and intracellular replication phases of PRV. Piceatannol significantly reduced the expression levels of the IE180, EP0, UL29, UL44, US6 and UL27 genes of PRV within 48 h, significantly reduced the expression levels of the PRV gB and gD proteins, and reduced PRV-induced apoptosis. Molecular docking showed that piceatannol had good binding activity with the PRV gB and gD proteins. The results of animal experiments in vitro indicated that piceatannol could delay the onset of disease, improve the survival rate of the mice (14.3%), reduce the viral load in the brain and kidney of the mice, alleviate the pathological changes in the mouse tissues and organs, and increase the levels of TNF-α, IEN-γ and IL-4 in the serum of the mice. These data indicate that piceatannol has good anti-PRV activity in vitro and in vivo, indicating that it could be a novel antiherpesvirus infection agent in the future.

Detection of virus in sample is an actual problem in biotechnology, virology, medicine using biosensor. History of problem dates back to middle of last century and is associated with development of an ion-sensitive solid-state device for neurophysiological measurements. Aim of work is theoretical investigation process of detection antibody+antigen (AB+AG) complexes using SOI-FET biosensor. On example of crystal with ten biosensors, estimates of probability detection AB+AG complexes influenza virus are made. In detection process, following four results are possible: – target complex is present in test sample, and it was correctly detected; – target complex is present in sample, but it was not detected; – target complex is absent in sample, but background particles are mistakenly detected as target complex; – target complex is absent in sample, background particles present in sample and are correctly detected as noise.

IHepatitis C virus (HCV) has a high genetic diversity, with seven genotypes with 86 subtypes. This genetic variability confers persistence in the infection and escape of the immune system with evolution to cirrhosis and cancer. Environmental factors can contribute to different disease progression, being essential to assess the viral genotype in the infection and discuss the environmental particularities of Eastern Amazon, and the frequencies of Liver fibrosis between different HCV genotypes in patients living in a region of the Brazilian Eastern Brazilian Amazon. Consists in an observational cross-sectional study. Sociodemographic and clinical data of 76 individuals diagnosed with Hepatitis C between 2019 and 2020 in public health services were selected. Data collected was tabulated in Microsoft Excel 2010TM spreadsheets and analysed in GraphPad Prism 5.0TM. Liver fibrosis was associated with genetic subtypes. Subtype 1b was predominant (42.1%), followed by 1a (13%) and 3a (1.3%). 69.7% of participants had chronic hepatitis, with mild fibrosis (F1/F2) being the most prevalent (38.1%). Severe fibrosis was detected in 75% of individuals infected with the subtype 1b, that is associated with more severe disease. We suggest further studies, to assess other communities in the region, as well as the monitoring of these patients with Liver Elastography to determine the disease evolution and its better management.

In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was yet exposed to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative regions in Nigeria. In this study, we characterized the genome of 97 influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5N1, H5N2 and H5N8 identified in different agro-ecological zones and farms during the 2021-2022 epidemic. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes showed widespread distribution of the H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b and similarity with the HPAI H5Nx viruses detected in Europe since late 2020. Topology of the phylogenetic trees indicates the occurrence of several independent introductions of the virus into the country followed by a regional evolution of the virus most probably linked to its persistent circulation in West African territories. An additional evidence of the evolutionary potential of HPAI viruses circulating in this region is the identification in this study of a putative H5N1/H9N2 reassortant virus in a mixed-species commercial poultry farm. Our data confirm Nigeria as a crucial hotspot for HPAI virus introduction from the Eurasian territories and reveal a dynamic pattern of avian influenza virus evolution within the Nigerian poultry population.

Severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections in early life have been linked to the development of chronic airway disease. RSV is a potent inducer of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which contributes to inflammation and enhanced clinical disease. NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is an evolutionary conserved redox-responsive protein that helps to protect cells and whole organisms from oxidative stress and injury. The role of Nrf2 in the context of viral-mediated chronic lung injury is not known. Herein, we show that RSV experimental infection of adult Nrf2 deficient BALB/c mice (Nrf2-/-; Nrf2 KO) is characterized by enhanced disease, increased inflammatory cell recruitment to the bronchoalveolar compartment, and a more robust upregulation of innate and inflammatory genes and proteins, compared to wild type Nrf2+/+ competent mice (WT). These events that occur at very early time points, lead to increased peak RSV replication in Nrf2 KO compared to WT mice (day 5). To evaluate longitudinal changes of the lung architecture, mice were scanned weekly by high-resolution micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging up to 28 days after initial viral inoculation. Based on micro-CT qualitative 2D imaging and quantitative reconstructed histogram-based analysis of lung volume and density, we found that RSV infected Nrf2 KO mice developed significantly greater and prolonged fibrosis compared to WT mice. Results of this study underscore the critical role of Nrf2-mediated protection from oxidative injury not only in acute pathogenesis of RSV infection, but also in its long-term consequences of chronic airway injury.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus and causes an infection that is associated with neurological manifestations, including microcephaly and Guillain-Barre syndrome. The mechanism of ZIKV-mediated neuropathogenesis is not well understood. In this study, we discovered that ZIKV induces the degradation of the Numb protein, which plays a crucial role in neurogenesis by allowing asymmetric cell division during embryonic development. Our data show that ZIKV reduced the Numb protein level in a time- and dose-dependent manner. However, ZIKV infection appears to have minimal effect on the Numb transcript. Treatment of ZIKV-infected cells with a proteasome inhibitor restores the Numb protein level, which suggests the involvement of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. In addition, ZIKV infection shortens the half-life of the Numb protein. Among the ZIKV proteins, the capsid protein significantly reduces the Numb protein level. Immunoprecipitation of the Numb protein co-precipitates the capsid protein, indicating the interaction between these two proteins. These results provide insights into the ZIKV-cell interaction that might contribute to its impact on neurogenesis.

Background: Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) diagnosis have become a challenge for primary care physicians in areas where zika virus and/or dengue virus are present. Case definitions for the three arboviral infections are overlapping. Methods: A cross-sectional analysis was carried out. A bivariate analysis was made using confirmed CHIKV infection as the outcome. Variables with significant statistical association were included in an agreement consensus. Agreed variables were analyzed in multiple regression model. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was calculated to determine a cut-off value and performance. Results: 295 patients with confirmed CHIKV infection were included. A screening tool was made using symmetric arthritis (4 points), fatigue (3 points), rash (2 points) and ankle joint pain (1 point). The ROC curve identified a cut-off value and a score ≥ 5.5 was considered positive to identify CHIKV patients with a sensibility of 64.4% and a specificity of 87.4%, positive predictive value of 85.5%, negative predictive value of 67.7%, area under the curve of 0.72, and an accuracy of 75%. Conclusion: We developed a screening tool for CHIKV diagnosis using only clinical symptoms as well as proposed an algorithm to aid the primary care physician.

Life sciences are increasingly benefiting from multidisciplinary research, combining biology, chemistry and physics. At their intersection, biothermodynamics applies the quantitative framework of thermodynamics to life processes and is a potentially interesting subject for life science students. Here a method is proposed to teach undergraduate life science students the basics of biothermodynamics, building and expanding on the concept of Gibbs energy learned as a part of the physical or general chemistry course. The discussion begins with the role of Gibbs energy as the driving force of metabolism and growth. Moreover, a biological example is proposed of the enthalpy-entropy combinations resulting in negative Gibbs energy, which should be interesting to life science students. Gibbs energy is then used to explain microorganism growth rates, using a simple thermodynamic growth model. Finally, multiplication of viruses is considered, including SARS-CoV-2, using Gibbs energy to explain the hijacking of host cell metabolism. Implementation of the proposed biothermodynamics material in classroom is discussed. The paper should be useful as material for making lectures for undergraduate students and as a starting point for anyone beginning to do research in biothermodynamics.

Airborne virus, such as COVID-19, caused pandemics all over the world. Virus-containing particles produced by infected individuals are suspended in the air for extended periods of time, actually results in viral aerosols and the spread of infectious diseases. Aerosol collection and detection devices are essential for limiting the spread of airborne virus diseases. This review provides an overview of the primary mechanisms and enhancement techniques for collecting and detecting airborne viruses. Indoor virus detection strategies for scenarios with varying ventilations are also summarized based on the excellent performance of existing advanced comprehensive devices. This review provides guidance for the development of future aerosol detection devices and aids in the control of airborne transmission diseases, such as COVID-19, monkeypox, and other airborne transmission viruses.

Viroids represent the simplest, but are also among the most interesting life-like forms. They represent a great problem in agriculture. Moreover, pathogens similar to viroids, such as the hepatitis Delta virus represent a risk for human health. Viroids encode no proteins, but are still able to hijack their host cells’ metabolism to perform multiplication. This paper attempts to reply three questions about viroids. First, how can viroids hijack their host cells’ metabolism, even though they encode no proteins to achieve this? Second, what advantages do viroids have from their simplicity? Third, what can viroids, as the simplest life-like forms, tell us about life as a natural phenomenon? These questions are discussed from the perspective of biothermodynamics. In order to do this, elemental composition, biosynthesis reactions and standard thermodynamic properties of viroids have been determined and analyzed.

In Kawasaki disease (KD), convulsions are rare and mostly attributed to latent and coexisting encephalitis/encephalopathy due to KD itself. Therefore, we retrospectively investigated concomitant viral infections in patients with KD. Between January 2012 and December 2020, among 523 patients with KD, 7 (1.53%), 1 (0.19%), 6 and 1 (1.15% and 0.19%) were positive for adenovirus (AdV-Ag), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV-Ag), and influenza A or B (Flu A-Ag or Flu B-Ag) antigens, respectively. Among them, two were positive for both AdV-Ag and FluA-Ag. Seven patients with KD (1.3%) presented febrile convulsions, and only one was diagnosed with encephalitis/encephalopathy. Between January 2021 and August 2022, 57 patients with KD were newly diagnosed among whom FilmArray® respiratory panel (FARP) was applied on 24 patients, and 14 (58.3%) were positive for at least one virus. During the same period, 32 out of 45 patients (71.1%) with febrile convulsions examined using the FARP were positive for at least one virus. The trend of viruses in patients with KD and febrile convulsion reflected the regional epidemic viral infection. Respiratory virus detected at a much higher rate using the FARP suggests that most convulsions in patients with KD might be related to concomitant viral infection. The possible involvement and association of concomitant respiratory viral infections in patients with KD with prognosis or encephalopathy/encephalitis remain to be investigated.

Rose (Rosa spp.), especially R. hybrida, is one of the most popular ornamental plants in the world and the third largest cut flower crop in Taiwan. Rose mosaic disease (RMD), showing mosaic, line patterns and ringspots on leaves, is a common rose disease caused by complex infection of various viruses. Due to pests and diseases, the rose planting area in Taiwan has been decreasing since 2008; however, no rose virus disease has been reported in the past five decades. In the spring of 2020, rose samples showing RMD-like symptoms were observed at an organic farm in Chiayi, central Taiwan. The virome in the farm was analyzed by RNA-seq. Rose genomic sequences were filtered from the obtained reads. The remaining reads were de novo assembled to generate 294 contigs, 50 of which were annotated as viral sequences corresponding to 10 viruses. Through reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction validation, a total of seven viruses were detected, including six known rose viruses, namely apple mosaic virus, prunus necrotic ringspot virus, rose partitivirus, apple stem grooving virus, rose spring dwarf-associated virus and rose cryptic virus 1, and a novel ilarvirus. After completing the whole genome sequencing and sequence analysis, the unknown ilarvirus was demonstrated as a new species, tentatively named rose ilarvirus 2. This is the first report of the rose viruses in Taiwan.

The presence of a non-structural protein 1 (NS1) in tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) vaccines and the possible induction of an NS1-specific immune response in vaccinated individuals remains a somewhat controversial topic. Previously, we detected the presence of NS1 in Encepur TBE vaccine by mass spectrometry and found the induction of NS1-specific IgG antibodies in mice vaccinated with FSME-Immun TBE vaccine. Here, in this follow-up study, we examined the dynamics and extent of the NS1-specific IgG response in mice vaccinated with these two vaccines in more detail and compared it with the IgG response to the whole virus (WV). Mice were vaccinated at two-week intervals with a total of six doses of each vaccine, and levels of IgG antibodies to TBE virus WV and NS1 were measured by ELISA after each dose. Both vaccines elicited a robust anti-WV IgG response after two doses. The Encepur vaccine did not elicit NS1-specific IgG even after all six doses. In contrast, FSME-Immun vaccine triggered production of NS1-specific IgG after four doses. The results indicate that FSME-Immun is the only vaccine that elicits an NS1-specific antibody response in mice. However, compared to WV-specific IgG, the NS1-specific response is weaker, and a higher number of doses is required to induce detectable levels of NS1-specific IgG antibodies.

Influenza is a highly contagious, acute respiratory illness, which represents one of the main health issues worldwide. Even though some antivirals are available, the alarming increase of virus strains resistant to them highlights the need to find new drugs. Previously, Superti et al. have deeper investigated the mechanism of the anti-Influenza virus effect of bovine Lactoferrin (bLf) and the role of its tryptic fragments (the N and C-lobes) in the antiviral activity. Recently, through a truncation library, we identified the tetrapeptides, SKHS (1) and SLDC (2), derived from bLf C-lobe fragment 418-429, which were able to bind hemagglutinin (HA) and inhibit cell infection in a concentration range of femto- to picomolar. Starting from these results, in this work, we initiated a systematic SAR study on the peptides mentioned above, through an Alanine scanning approach. We carried out binding affinity measurements by microscale thermophoresis (MST) and Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR), and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and virus neutralization (NT) assays on synthesized peptides. Computational studies were performed to identify possible lig-and-HA interactions. Results obtained led to the identification of an interesting peptide endowed with broad anti-Influenza activity and able to inhibit viral infection to a greater extent of reference peptide.

Zika virus (ZIKV), without a vaccine or no effective treatment approved as yet, have globally spread since the past century. The infection caused by ZIKV in humans has changed progressively from mild to subclinical in the last years, causing epidemics with greater infectivity, tropism towards new tissues, and other related symptoms as a product of various emergent ZIKV-host cell interactions. However, it is still unknown why or how the RNA genome structure impacts those interactions in differential evolutionary origin strains. Moreover, genomic comparison of ZIKV strains from the sequence-based phylogenetic analysis is well known, but differences from RNA structure comparisons are less known. Thus, in order to understand the RNA genome variability of lineages of various geographic distributions better, 412 complete genomes in a phylogenomic scanning were used for studying the conservation of structured RNAs. We found specific genomic regions, which highlight their patterns of conserved RNA structures at the level of inter-geographical comparisons. We have proposed these structures as candidates for further experimental validation to establish their potential role in vital functions of the viral cycle of ZIKV and their possible associations with the singularities of different outbreaks that occurred in specific geographic regions.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus considered as a threat to human health due to large epidemics and serious clinical outcomes such as microcephaly in newborns. Like all flaviviruses, ZIKV relies on the cellular machinery to complete its viral cycle, with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) being the critical site of viral replication factories. The sudden high protein load in the ER induces an ER stress to which the cell responds with an appropriate unfolded protein response (UPR) in an attempt to restore its disturbed homeostasis. When the restoration fails, the cell signaling leads to a programmed cell death by apoptosis with the upregulation of the UPR-induced C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) which acts as the main trigger for this fatal outcome. Our previous studies have shown the ability of ZIKV to manipulate various cellular responses in order to optimize virus production. ZIKV is able to delay apoptosis to its benefit and although ER stress is induced, the UPR is not complete. Here we discovered that ZIKV impairs the expression of CHOP/DDIT3, the main factor responsible of ER-stress driven apoptosis. Surprisingly, the mechanism does not take place at the transcriptional level but at the translational level.

The pandemic history of pathogenic SARS-CoV-2 associated COVID-19 infection began in December 2019, with its emergence in Wuhan, China. Pertaining to its high transmissibility and wide host adaptability, this new and unique human coronavirus spread across the planet affecting almost every country, inflicting 91 million people and causing 1.9 million deaths (as of January 17th, 2021). Limited or negligible pre-existing immunity to multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants has resulted in severe morbidity and mortality worldwide, as well as a record-breaking surge in the use of medical-surgical supplies and personal protective equipments. In response to the global need for effective sterilization techniques, this study evaluated the virucidal efficacy of FATHHOME’s self-contained, ozone-based dry-sanitizing device, by dose and time response assessment. We tested inactivation of human coronavirus, HCoV-OC43, a close genetic model of SARS-CoV-2, on porous (N95 filtering facepiece respirator/FFR) and nonporous (glass) surfaces. We started our assays with 20 ppm of ozone for 10 min exposure, which was able to effectively reduce, 99.8% and 99.9% of virus from glass and N95 FFR surfaces, respectively. Importantly, the virus was completely inactivated, below the detection limit (over 6-log10 reduction) with 25 ppm ozone for 15 mins on both tested surfaces. As expected, a higher ozone concentration (50 ppm) resulted in faster inactivation of HCoV-OC43 with 100% inactivation in 10 mins from both the surfaces, with no residual ozone present after completion of the 5-minute post exposure recapture cycle and no measurable increase in ambient ozone levels. These results confirmed that FATHHOME’s device may provide a safe and viable solution for rapid decontamination of SARS-CoV-2- from worn items, frequently touched items, and PPE including N95 FFRs, face shields and other personal items.

Aim: The aim of this study was to use a multi target approach to testing with both serological tests and an in-house real-time molecular test to investigate the prevalence of the caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) in goats from three hobbyist farms in the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. Materials and Methods: We have approached the detection of using a multi target approach testing with both ELISA and an in-house real-time PCR test to investigate the prevalence of CAEV in goats. Animals from three hobbyist farms were used in this study. The animals from two farms (n=13 for F1 and n=8 for F2) had clinical signs of arthritis and mastitis. In the third farm (n=15 for F3), all goats were homebred and had no contact with imported animals. Results: CAEV antibodies (ELISA targets TM env and gag genes) were detected in serum samples from two farms (F1 and F2), indicating a seroprevalence 87.50-92.31%. Specific CAEV antibodies were also detected in milk samples. CAEV proviral DNA was detected in 53.85-62.50%. Results from all tests performed in the third farm (F3) were negative, indicting all tests were 100% specific.Conclusion: Results of this work show that CAEV is circulating and present in small hobbyist goat farms in Russia. Serological and molecular tests could be of importance for CAEV control and eradication programs in Russia for hobbyist goat farms.

Over two years (2012-2014), 719 nasopharyngeal samples were collected from 6 weeks to 12 months old infants presenting at emergency department with moderate to severe acute bronchiolitis. Viral testing was performed and we found 98% positive samples including 90% Respiratory Syncytial Virus, 34% Human Rhino Virus, and 55% viral co-detections with predominance of RSV/HRV co-infections (30%). Interestingly, we found that the risk of being infected by HRV is higher in the absence of RSV, suggesting interferences or exclusion mechanisms between these two viruses. Conversely, Coronavirus infection had no impact on the likelihood of co-infection involving HRV and RSV. Bronchiolitis is the leading cause of hospitalizations in infants before 12 months of age, and many questions about its role in the later chronic respiratory diseases (asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) do exist. Role of virus detection and burden of viral codetections need to be further explored, in order to understand the physiopathology of chronic respiratory diseases, a major public health issue.

In silico analysis is a promising approach for understanding biological events in complex diseases. Herein, we report an in silico analysis of the entire genome of virus ZikaSPH2015 strain, which was performed in order to identify the occurrence of specific motifs on genomic sequence of Zika Virus that is able to bind and therefore, sequester host’s Transcription Factors (TFs) as well as subsequently predict a possible interactions within host genome. Accordingly to obtained results of this original computational work-flow it is possible to hypothesize that these TFs Binding Motifs might be able to explain the complex and heterogeneous phenotype presentation in Zika Virus affected fe-tus/newborns, as well as the less severe condition in adults. Moreover, the proposed in silico protocol identified thirty three different TFs same as the distribution of TFBSs (Transcription Factor Binding Sites) on ZikaSPH2015 strain, potentially able to influence genes and pathways with biological functions confirming that this approach could find potential answers on disease pathogenesis.

Understanding African swine fever virus (ASFV) transmission is essential for strategies to minimize virus spread during an outbreak. ASFV can survive for extended time periods in animal products, carcasses, and the environment. While ASFV genome was found in the environment around infected farms, data on the virus survival in soil are scarce. We investigated different soil matrices spiked with ASFV-positive blood from infected wild boar to see if ASFV can remain infectious in the soil beneath infected carcasses. As expected, ASFV genome detection was possible over the entire sampling period. Soil pH, structure, and ambient temperature played a role for the stability of infectious ASFV. Infectious ASFV was demonstrated in specimens originating from sterile sand for at least three weeks, from beach sand for up to two weeks, from yard soil for one week, and from swamp soil for three days. Virus was not recovered from two acidic forest soils. All risk mitigation experiments with citric acid or calcium hydroxide resulted in complete inactivation. In conclusion, stability of infectious ASFV is very low in acidic forest soils but rather high in sandy soils. However, given the high variability, treatment of carcass collection points with disinfectants should be considered.

Emerging and reemerging pathogens is a global challenge for public health. Recently, a novel coronavirus disease emerged in Wuhan, Hubei province of China, in December 2019. It is named COVID-19 by World Health Organization (WHO). It is known to be caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that affects the lower respiratory tract and manifests as pneumonia in humans. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are structurally more complicated as compared to other RNA viruses. This viral epidemic has led to the deaths of many, including the elderly or those with chronic disease or compromised immunity. Viruses cause infection and diseases in humans of varying degrees, upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) cause common cold while lower respiratory tract infections induce pneumonia, bronchitis, and even severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The costs of COVID-19 are not limited. It equally affects all the medical, sociological, psychological, and economic aspects globally. This is regarded as the third deadly outbreak in the last two decades after Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome SARS (2002–2003) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome MERS (2012). Based on the sequence homology of SARS-CoV-2, different animal sources including bats, snakes, and pangolins have been reported as potential carriers of this viral strain. Real-time RT-PCR represents the primary method for the diagnosis of new emerging viral strain SARS-CoV-2. The transmission dynamics suggest that SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted from person-to-person through direct contact or coughing, sneezing, and by respiratory droplets. Several anti-viral treatments including lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir, chloroquine phosphate, and abidor are also suggested with different recommendations and prescriptions. Protective and preventive strategies as suggested by various health organization i.e. WHO and US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) must be adopted by everyone. This review covers the important aspects of novel COVID-19 including characteristics, virology, symptoms, diagnostics, clinical aspects, transmission dynamics, and protective measures of COVID-19.

The simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are small 1-6bp tandem repeat elements present across diverse genomes and involved in gene regulation and evolution. Presently we analyzed SSRs in genomes of 98 species of family Polyomaviridae across four genera. The genome size ranged from 3962bp (BM87) to 7369bp (BM85) but maximum genomes were in the range of 5 to 5.5 kb. The GC% had an average of 42% and ranged between 34.69 (BM95) to 52.35 (BM81). A total of 3036 SSRs and 223 cSSRs were extracted using IMEx with incident frequency from 18 to 56 and 0 to 7 respectively. The most prevalent mono-nucleotide repeat motif was “T” (48.95%) followed by “A” (33.48%). “AT/TA” was the most prevalent dinucleotide motif closely followed by “CT/TC”. The distribution was expectedly more in coding region with 77.6% SSRs of which nearly half were in Large T Antigen (LTA) gene. Notably, most viruses with humans, apes and related species as host exhibited exclusivity of mono-nucleotide repeats in AT region, a proposed predictive marker for determination of humans as host in virus in course of its evolution. Each genome has a unique SSR signature which is pivotal for viral evolution particularly in terms of host divergence.

The prevalence and case fatality rates of Pediatric Lassa fever disease (LFD) are not well documented. This study was aimed at determining the prevalence, pattern and outcome of Pediatric LFD. It was a prospective observational study. A total of 183 subjects that met the criteria for LFD suspects were recruited consecutively and subjected to Lassa virus PCR test. Structured questionnaire was used to collect information. Of the 183 children recruited, 24 tested positive to Lassa virus PCR, giving a positivity rate of 13.1%. Mean duration of illness at presentation was 8.54 ± 3.83 days. Fever, abdominal pain and vomiting were the three highest presenting complaints. Seven out of 24 children died giving a case fatality rate (CFR) of 29.2%. Subjects with bleeding, poor urine output, convulsions and unconsciousness were more likely to die of LFD. Positivity and CFR of LFD are high. Improved case finding and prompt treatment is advocated.

Nowadays tourism is growing as a gigantic, global business accounting for 10.4 % of Global GDP and 10% of global employment (Joppe, 2020). This review paper aims to explore the risks borne for tourism sector by the outbreak of corona-virus in 2020. Tourism sector is a highly vulnerable sector and the costs that will be borne from corona-virus pandemic will be devastating, particularly for the countries relying on this sector as a basic source of income. The paper suggests possible solutions and adaptation routes, while at the same time reviews lessons of the past from other pandemics and crisis. This paper is very useful for tourism policy makers and governments in countries where tourism contributes a significant part of their GDP, but also for other economic sectors closely but indirectly connected in the tourism value chain.

Background: The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is spreading globally now. However, the clinical presentation that predict prognosis of the patients are still largely unknow. Methods: We enrolled 393 patients infected with COVID-19 and 30 patients with common pulmonary bulla and reviewed their clinical features to evaluate the potential prognostic value of pulmonary vesicles, especially in the patients with severe symptoms. One COVID-19 patient with vesicles was treated by bullectomy for last resort, and its characteristics of the patient’s perioperative laboratory tests was analyzed. The pathological findings of bullectomy were described and compared with those of common bulla cases. Results: Patients infected with COVID-19 showed more dependence on ventilator, occurrence of super resistant bacteria, and prone to vesicle formation than common bulla (p<0.05). Disease severity is associated with age, sex, and usage of ventilator, ECMO and antibiotics, super resistance bacteria and vesicle formation (p<0.05). The average mortality rate of COVID-19 patients was 4.10% (25.4% in severe patients, 0.00% in mild patients). Interestingly, the mortality rate further increased in severe patients with pulmonary vesicles than those without pulmonary vesicles (35.7% vs 22.4%, p=0.0442). One COVID-19 patient with vesicles underwent bullectomy and had a poor prognosis, who showed diffuse alveolar damage and extensive necrosis in bullectomy specimen. Conclusions: Patients infected with COVID-19 are more prone to form pulmonary vesicles showed on chest CT scans, as an important poor prognosis factor, especially in the severe patients.

Introduction The COVID-19 virus was initially reported in Dec 2019 as the causative agent of a pneumonia breakout in Wuhan China. This virus rapidly spread from China to Europe and the East Coast of the United States eventually reaching the South West United States and indigenous tribes in mid -March. Since, then the indigenous tribes have been devasted by the virus which the Governor of New Mexico has likened as an existential threat. Methodology A PubMed search was performed utilizing the words: Navajo Indian, Indigenous Indian, Wuhan Virus, COVID-19, SARs coronavirus, ACE2, S protein, virulence, clinical presentation, epidemiology, genome, treatment, structure, MERs, pathogenesis and/or pathology alone and in combination with other terms. Each paper was evaluated by three content experts for quality, reproducibility, credibility and reputation of the journal Results: Navajo’s and other indigenous peoples may have elevated levels of ACE2 receptors in their lungs and other tissues allowing greater susceptibility to the COVID-19 virus. Increased levels of diabetes and protein nutrition are directly related to increased morbidity and mortality in this group while obesity, COPD, and heart diseas are not. The increased morbidity and mortality is exasperated by an inability to test for COVID-19 Conclusion: The infectivity rate of Navaho’s on the reservation is 22 times higher than the national average with a death rate near 4%. Comorbidites account for some of the increased morbidity and mortality while lack of access to adequate health care unnecessarily magnifies the poor outcome. The threat to indigenous tribes in the Southwest of COVID-19 is dire.

The SARS-CoV-2 is a recently identified positive sense single stranded RNA virus and member of the coronavirus family of viruses. It is thought to be the etiological factor for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. This virus is thought to have originated from bats and acquired ability of human-to-human transmission. While SARS-CoV-2 is relatively benign, it has infected more than half a million people (as of March 29^th 2020) worldwide and the number of infected people continues to rise. More than 170 countries have reported COVID-19 positive cases. With a mortality rate of less than both the previous coronavirus outbreaks, COVID-19 has (conversely) caused the death of over 33,980 (as of 29^th March, 2020 at 22.00 hours EDT) people worldwide and the number is increasing. Given the enormous impact of this virus on human health and wellbeing and consequent devastating impacts on world trade, economics and quality of life, it is important to understand this virus better and get insight into its pathogenic mechanisms which will aid in devising effective measure to curb its spread and predict future pattern of its interaction with humans. Though very little is known about this SARS-CoV-2 but its mechanisms and patterns of spread can be speculated (with caution, nevertheless) from what we know about its closest relatives SARS-CoV-1 (responsible for SARS-2002 epidemic) and MERS-CoV (responsible for MERS-2012 epidemic). In the present review, we aim at bringing together the coherent and peer reviewed literature about the SARS-CoV-2 and its close relatives and try to understand its infection patterns and reconstruct its pathogenic mechanisms with anecdotes on diagnosis and future directions. We hope that this paper will serve the purpose of being a reliable source of information to scientists, clinicians and general public.

The complete genomic sequence of a Cassava common mosaic virus Linggao isolate (CsCMV-LG) was determined from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) with mild leafy mosaic symptom to no symptom in China. Excluding the poly(A) tail, the CsCMV-LG genome (GenBank accession No. MT038420) is 6374 nucleotides (nts) in length, with five major open reading frames encoding a 1450-amino acids (aa) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), three triple gene block (TGB) proteins (231-aa, 110-aa and 95-aa), and a 229-aa coat protein (CP). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the complete genome of the CsCMV-LG is closely related to that of CsCMV-Brazilian which has been assigned to the genus Potexvirus, but the sequence identity shared only 88.0%. Notable, the mild CsCMV-LG isolate can also infect Nicotiana benthamiana in laboratory through rub inoculation causing mild vein yellowing at 15-day post inoculation. This is the first full-length genome sequence of a distinct isolate of Cassava common mosaic virus (CsCMV) infecting cassava in Hainan, China.

Emergence of zoonotic-human pathogens is proven to be a lethal threat to public health, and RNA virus including influenza viruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Wuhan coronavirus (COVID-19), plays a pivotal role. As those viruses as airborne microorganisms spread mainly by tiny airborne particles, it is important to de-active those airborne particles before their entry into human bodies. In this study, we investigated the effect of far infrared (FIR) radiation on inhibition of airborne microorganisms. The result confirmed that double stand DNA from airborne microorganisms were stable under mild FIR radiation. However, single strand RNA from them was found to be sensitive to FIR radiation, indicating that RNA virus in airborne particles is instable under FIR radiation. Based on this observation, two models on usage of FIR radiation to prevent RNA virus transmission and cure RNA virus infection were proposed, implying that FIR radiation might be a cheap, convenient, and efficient method in clinic to treat RNA virus.

Amyloids are fibrillar protein aggregates that are associated with diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, type II diabetes and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The process of amyloid aggregation involves three pathological protein transformations; from natively-folded conformation to the cross-β conformation, from biophysically soluble to insoluble, and from biologically functional to non-functional. While amyloids share a similar cross-β conformation, the biophysical transformation can either take place spontaneously via a homogeneous nucleation mechanism (HON) or catalytically on an exogenous surface via a heterogeneous nucleation mechanism (HEN). Here, we postulate that the different nucleation pathways can serve as a mechanistic basis for an etiological classification of amyloidopathies, where hereditary forms generally follow the HON pathway, while sporadic forms follow surface-induced (including microbially-induced) HEN pathways. Furthermore, the conformational and biophysical amyloid transformation results in loss-of-function (LOF) of the original natively-folded and soluble protein. This LOF can, at least initially, be the mechanism of amyloid toxicity even before amyloid accumulation reaches toxic levels. By highlighting the important role of non-protein species in amyloid formation and LOF mechanisms of toxicity, we propose a generalized mechanistic framework that could help better understand the diverse etiology of amyloid diseases and offer new opportunities for therapeutic interventions including replacement therapies.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging human mosquito-transmitted pathogen of global concern, known to be associated with complications such as congenital defects and neurological disorders in adults. ZIKV infection is associated with induction of cell death. However, previous studies suggest that the virally-induced apoptosis occurs at a slower rate compared to the course of viral production. In this present study, we investigated the capacity of ZIKV to delay host cell apoptosis. We provide evidence that ZIKV has the ability to interfere with apoptosis whether it is intrinsically or extrinsically induced. In cells expressing viral replicon-type constructions, we show that this control is achieved through replication. Finally, our work highlights an important role for anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family protein in the ability of ZIKV to control apoptotic pathways, avoiding premature cell death and thereby promoting virus replication in the host-cell.

In this study, ridgetail white prawns Exopalaemon carinicauda were infected per os with debris of Shrimp hemocyte iridescent virus (SHIV)-infected Penaeus vannamei and via intramuscular injection (im) with raw extracts of SHIV. The infected E. carinicauda showed obvious clinical symptoms, including weakness, empty gut and stomach, pale hepatopancreas, and partial death with cumulative mortality of (50.0±26.5)% and (76.7±18.3)%, respectively. Results of TaqMan probe based real-time quantitative PCR showed that the moribund and survival individuals with clinical signs of infected E. carinicauda were SHIV-positive. Histological examination showed that there were dark eosinophilic inclusions, of which some were surrounded with or contained tiny basophilic staining, and pyknosis in cytoplasm of hemocytes in the hepatopancreatic sinus, hematopoietic cells, and cuticular epithelium, etc. Positive hybridization signals were observed in stomach, hematopoietic tissue, cuticular epithelium, and hepatopancreatic sinus of infected prawns from both per os and im groups, according to the results of in situ DIG-labeling-loop-mediated DNA Amplification (ISDL). Transmission electron microscopy of ultrathin sections showed that icosahedral SHIV particles existed in hepatopancreatic sinus and gills of the infected E. carinicauda of the per os group. The viral particles were also observed in the hepatopancreatic sinus, gills, pereiopods, muscles, and uropods of the infected E. carinicauda from the im group. The assembled virions mostly distributed outside of the assembling area near cellular membrane of infected cells, which were with envelope and about 150 nm in diagonal diameter. The results of molecular biological tests, histopathological examination, ISDL, and transmission electron microscopy confirmed that E. carinicauda is one of the susceptible hosts of SHIV. This study also reminded that E. carinicauda showed some degree of tolerance to the infection with SHIV per os challenge mimicking natural pathway.

Japanese encephalitis is a zoonotic disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It is mainly epidemic in Asia with an estimated 69,000 cases occurring per year. However, no approved agents are available for the treatment of JEV infection, and existing vaccines cannot resist various types of JEV strains. Drug repurposing is a new concept for finding new indication of existing drugs, and recently, it has been used to discover new antiviral agents. Identifying host proteins involved in the progress of JEV infection and using these proteins as targets are the center of drug repurposing for JEV infection. In this study, based on the gene expression data of JEV infection and the phenome-wide association study (PheWAS) data, we identified 286 genes participating in the progress of JEV infection using the systems biology methods. The enrichment analysis of these genes suggested that the genes identified by our methods were predominantly related to viral infection pathways and immune response-related pathways. We found that bortezomib which can target these genes may have potential effect on the treatment of JEV infection. Subsequently, we evaluated the antiviral activity of bortezomib using the JEV-infected mice model. The results showed that bortezomib can lower JEV-induced lethality in mice, alleviate suffering in JEV-infected mice and reduce the damage in brains caused by JEV infection. This work provides a new method for the development of antiviral agents.

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in aquatic ecosystems and harbor an enormous genetic diversity. While their great influence on the marine ecosystems is widely acknowledged, current information about their diversity remains scarce. A viral metagenomic analysis of three water samples was conducted from sites on the South Scotia Ridge (SSR) near the Antarctic Peninsula, during the austral summer 2016. The taxonomic composition and diversity of the viral communities were investigated and a functional assessment of the sequences was determined. Phylotypic analysis showed that most viruses belonging to the order Caudovirales, especially the family Podoviridae (41.92-48.7%), similar to the viromes from the Pacific Ocean. Functional analysis revealed a relatively high frequency of phage-associated and metabolism genes. Phylogenetic analyses of phage TerL and Capsid_NCLDV (nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses) marker genes indicated that many sequences associated with Caudovirales and NCLDV were novel and distinct from known phage genomes. High Phaeocystis globosa virus virophage (Pgvv) signatures were found in SSR area and complete and partial Pgvv-like were obtained which may have an influence on host-virus interactions. Our study expands the existing knowledge of viral communities and their diversities from the Antarctic region and provides basic data for further exploring polar microbiomes.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a challenging global health threat in ~200 million infected individuals. Clinical data suggests that only ~10-15% of acutely HCV-infected individuals will achieve spontaneous viral clearance despite exuberant virus-specific immune responses, which is largely attributed to difficulties in recognizing the pathognomonic symptoms during the initial stages of exposure to the virus. Given the paucity of a suitable small animal model, it is also equally challenging to study the early phases of viral establishment. Further, the host factors contributing to HCV chronicity in a vast majority of acutely HCV-infected individuals largely remain unexplored. The last few years have witnessed a surge in studies showing that HCV adopts a myriad mechanisms to disconcert virus-specific immune responses in the host to establish persistence that includes, but not limited to viral escape mutations, viral growth at privileged sites, and antagonism. Here, we discussed a few hitherto poorly explained mechanisms employed by HCV that are believed to lead to chronicity in infected individuals. A better understanding of these mechanisms would aid the design of improved therapeutic targets against viral establishment in susceptible individuals.

Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the causative agent of infectious bronchitis, which causes considerable economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide. It is imperative to develop safe and efficient candidate vaccines to control IBV infection. In the current study, recombinant baculoviruses co-expressing S1 and N proteins, mono-expressing S1 or N proteins alone of IBV were constructed and prepared into subunit vaccines rHBM-S1-N, rHBM-S1 and rHBM-N. The levels of immune protection of these subunit vaccines were evaluated by inoculating specific pathogen-free (SPF) chickens at 14 days of age, boosting with the same dose 14 days later, and following challenge with a virulent GX-YL5 strain of IBV 14 days post-booster (dpb). The commercial vaccine strain H120 was used as a control. The IBV-specific antibody levels as well as the percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes were detected within 28 days post-vaccination (dpv). The morbidity, mortality, and re-isolation of virus from the tracheas and kidneys of challenged birds were evaluated at 5 days post-challenge (dpc). The results showed that the IBV-specific antibody levels and the percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocyte in rHBM-S1-N group were higher than those of rHBM-S1 and rHBM-N groups, especially the cellular immunity response. At 5 dpc, the mortality, morbidity and virus re-isolation rate of rHBM-S1-N were slightly higher than those of H120 group, but were lower than those of rHBM-S1 group and rHBM-N group. The present study demonstrated that the protection of recombinant baculovirus co-expressing S1 and N proteins was better than that of recombinant baculoviruses mono-expressing S1 or N protein alone. Thus, the recombinant baculovirus co-expressing S1 and N proteins could serve as a potential IBV vaccine and this demonstrates that the bivalent subunit vaccine including the S1 and N proteins might be a strategy for the development of an IBV subunit vaccine.

Human influenza A viruses (IAVs) cause global pandemics and epidemics, which remain serious threats to public health because of the shortage of effective means of control. To combat the surge of viral outbreaks, new treatments are urgently needed. Developing new virus control modalities requires better understanding of virus-host interactions. Here we describe how IAV infection triggers cellular apoptosis, and how this process can be exploited towards development of new therapeutics, which might be more effective than the currently available anti-influenza drugs.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) has now affected nearly one third of global population and became the number one cause of chronic liver disease in the world because of the obesity pandemic. Chronic hepatitis resulting from hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) also remain significant challenges to liver health even in the 21st century. The coexistence of MAFLD and chronic viral hepatitis can markedly alter the disease course of individual diseases and can complicate the management of each of these disorders. Thorough understanding of the pathobiological interlink and interactions between MAFLD and these two chronic viral hepatitis infections are crucial for appropriate management of patients. We update these interlinks in this comprehensive clinical review.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an oncogenic virus that causes chronic liver disease in more than 80% of patients. During the last decade, efficient direct acting antivirals were introduced into clinical practice. However, clearance of the virus does not reduce risk of end-stage liver diseases to the level observed in patients that have never been infected. So, investigation of HCV pathogenesis is still warranted. Virus-induced changes in cell metabolism contribute to the development of HCV-associated liver pathologies. Here we studied the impact of the virus on the metabolism of polyamines and proline as well as on the urea cycle, which plays a crucial role in liver function. It was found that HCV strongly suppresses the expression of arginase, a key enzyme of the urea cycle, leading to accumulation of arginine and upregulates proline oxidase with a concomitant decrease in proline concentrations. Addition of exogenous proline moderately suppressed viral replication. HCV upregulated transcription but suppressed protein levels of polyamine-metabolizing enzymes. This resulted in a decrease in polyamine content in infected cells. Finally, compounds targeting polyamine metabolism demonstrated pronounced antiviral activity pointing to spermine and spermidine as compounds affecting HCV replication. These data expand our understanding of HCV’s imprint on cell metabolism.

The domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) are resistant to most of the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) infections. In this study, we characterized the lung proteome and phosphoproteome of ducks infected with HPAI H5N1 virus (A/duck/India/02CA10/2011/Agartala) at 12 hr, 48 hr and 5 days post infection condition. Total 2082 proteins were differentially expressed and 320 phosphorylation sites mapping to 199 phosphopeptides corresponding to 129 proteins were identified. Functional annotation of proteome data analysis reveals activation of RIG-I-like receptor and Jak-STAT signaling pathways, that lead to induction of interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) expression. The pathway analysis of phosphoproteome datasets also confirms the activation of RIG I, Jak-STAT signaling, NF-kappa B signaling and MAPK signaling pathways in the lung tissues. The induction of ISGs proteins (STAT1, STAT3, STAT5B, STAT6, IFIT5 and PKR) establishes protective antiviral immune response in duck lung tissue. Further, the protein-protein interaction network analysis identified proteins like AKT1, STAT3, JAK2, RAC1, STAT1, PTPN11, RPS27A, NFKB1 and MAPK1 as main hub proteins that might play important roles in disease progression in ducks. Together, functional annotation of proteome and phosphoproteome datasets reveals the molecular basis of the disease progression and disease resistance mechanism in ducks infected with HPAI H5N1 virus.

Epidemic diseases that arise from infectious RNA viruses, particularly influenza viruses, pose a constant threat to the global economy and public health. Viral evolution has undermined the efficacy of acquired immunity from vaccines and the antiviral effects of FDA-approved drugs. As such, there is an urgent need to develop new antiviral lead agents. Natural compounds, owing to their historical validation of application and safety, have become a promising solution. In this light, a novel marine bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. M20A4R8, has been found to exhibit significant antiviral activity [half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) = 1.3 µg/mL, selectivity index (SI) = 919.4] against influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34, surpassing the activity of chloroquine. The antiviral response by M20A4R8 extract was induced during post-entry stages of the influenza virus, indicating suitability for post-application after the establishment of viral infection. Furthermore, post-treatment with M20A4R8 extract protected the host from virus-induced apoptosis, suggesting its potential use in acute respiratory disease complexes resulting from immune effectors' overstimulation and autophagy-mediated self-apoptosis. The extract demonstrated an outstanding therapeutic index against influenza virus A/Wisconsin/15/2009 (IC50 = 8.1 µg/mL, SI = 146.2) and B/Florida/78/2015 Victoria lineage (IC50 = 3.5 µg/mL, SI = 343.8), indicating a broad anti-influenza virus activity with guaranteed safety and effectiveness. This study provides a new perspective on mechanisms for preventing a broad spectrum of viral infections through antiviral agents from novel and natural origins. Future studies on a single or combined compound from the extract hold promise, encouraging its use in preclinical challenge tests with various influenza virus strains.

Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification based-Lateral Flow Testing (INAA-LFT) has emerged as a robust technique for on-site pathogen detection, providing a visible indication of pathogen nucleic acid amplification that rivals or even surpasses the sensitivity of real-time quantitative PCR. The isothermal nature of INAA-LFT ensures consistent conditions for nucleic acid amplification, establishing it as a crucial technology for rapid on-site pathogen detection. However, despite its considerable promise, the widespread application of isothermal INAA amplification-based lateral flow testing faces several challenges. This review provides an overview of the INAA-LFT procedure, highlighting its advancements in detecting plant viruses. Moreover, the review underscores the imperative to address existing limitations and emphasizes ongoing research efforts dedicated to enhancing the applicability and performance of this technology in the realm of rapid on-site testing.

Immunosenescence refers to age-related alterations of the immune system function affecting both the humoral and cellular arm of immunity. Understanding immunosenescence and its impact on vaccination of older adults is essential since primary vaccine responses in older individuals can fail to generate complete protection, especially vaccines targeting infections with increased incidence among the elderly, such as the respiratory syncytial virus. Here, we review the clinical trials of both candidate and approved vaccines against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which include adults aged ≥50 years, with an emphasis on the evaluation of immunogenicity parameters. Currently, there are 10 vaccine candidates and 2 vaccines approved for the prevention of RSV in the older adult population. The number of registered clinical trials for this age group amounts to 32. Our preliminary evaluation of published results and interim analyses of the RSV vaccine clinical trials indicates efficacy in older adult participants, demonstrating immunity levels that closely resemble those of younger adult participants.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has affected the pork industry worldwide and during outbreaks the mortality of piglets has reached 100%. Lipid nanocarriers are commonly used in the development of immunostimulatory particles due to their biocompatibility and slow-release delivery properties. In this study, we developed a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) complex based on glycyrrhizinic acid (GA) and tested its efficacy as an adjuvant in mice immunized with the recombinant N-terminal domain (NTD) of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) spike (S) protein (rNTD-S). The dispersion stability analysis (Z-potential–27.6 mV) confirmed the size and charge stability of the LNP-GA, demonstrating that the particles were homogeneously dispersed and strongly anionic, that favors nanoparticles binding with the rNTD-S protein, which showed a slightly positive charge (2.11 mV) by in silico analysis. TEM image of LNP-GA revealed nanostructures with a spherical-bilayer lipid vesicle (⁓100 nm). The immunogenicity of the LNP-GA-rNTD-S complex induced an efficient humoral response 14 days after the first immunization (P &lt; 0.05) as well as an influence on the cellular immune response by decreasing serum TNF-α and IL-1β concentrations, which was associated with an anti-inflammatory effect.

Our understanding of the divergence of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and mobile elements from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) has not improved substantially since the crystallization hypothesis (explaining transition from cellular machinery to cellular life) was proposed by Woese. Here, we propose a hypothesis for the simultaneous emergence of bacteria, archaea, viruses, and mobile elements by sequential and concrete biochemical and cellular pathways. According to the hypothesis, the LUCA was a non-free-living pool of single operon type genomes composed of single-stranded (ss) RNA, double-stranded (ds) RNA, RNA/DNA hybrid, ssDNA, or dsDNA at an ancient submarine alkaline vent. Each dsDNA operon was transcribed by different systems in σ, TFIIB, or TBP genomes. Upon the fusion of multiple dsDNA operons by recombinase, the transcription system (in the σ, TFIIB, or TBP genome) was preferentially selected, leading to the first genetic linkage (described by Morgan). Vertical inheritance eventually led to Bacteria (σ genome) and Archaea (TBP genome). Eigen’s paradox (error catastrophe) can be overcome by the parallel gain of DNA replication and DNA repair mechanisms in both genomes. Enlarged DNA enabled efficient local biochemical reactions. Both genomes independently recruited lipids to facilitate reactions by forming coacervates (liquid droplets) at the chamber of the vent, leading to the lipid divide. Bilayer lipid membrane formation, proto-cell formation with a permeable membrane, proto-cell division, and the evolution of membrane-associated biochemistry are presented in detail. Simultaneous crystallization of systems in non-free-living bacteria and non-free-living archaea triggered the co-crystallization of primitive viruses and mobile elements. An arms race between non-free-living cells and primitive viruses finally led to free-living cells with a cell wall and mature viruses at the original vent. Cells and viruses spread to all vents on the planet, explaining the universality of the genetic code on Earth. The proposed scenario provides a plausible explanation for the origin of diverse taxa from the LUCA vertical and horizontal gene transfer.

The COVID-19 pandemic, declared in early 2020, is an unprecedented global health crisis, causing over 7.0 million deaths and ongoing challenges. While the pharmaceutical industry expedited vaccine development, mutant SARS-CoV-2 strains remain a major fear. Moreover, concerns regarding the long-term health repercussions of COVID-19-affected individuals persist since individuals affected by mild and moderate to severe SARS-CoV-2 infection experience long-term cardiovascular complications, liver dysfunction, pulmonary afflictions, kidney impairments, and most importantly neurocognitive deficits. In recent studies, we documented pathophysiological changes in various organs following the post-acute infection of mice with murine hepatitis virus-1 (MHV-1), a coronavirus, at both 7 days and 12 months after infection. One part of the body that can be drastically affected by SARS-CoV-2 is the skin. Studies have shown major changes in the skin post-acute SARS CoV-2 infection in humans. However, long-term dermatologic changes post-COVID have never been explored. For the first time, we show several cutaneous findings both at the acute stages and long-term post-infection of mice with MHV-1 coronavirus (a promising experimental model to study acute and long-COVID). Precisely, we found destruction of the epidermal layer, an increase in the number of hair follicles, extensive collagen deposition in the dermal layer, and hyperplasticity of the sebaceous glands at the acute stages, along with thinning of the panniculus carnosus, as well as the adventitial layer, which corresponds well with studies in humans. In contrast, the cutaneous investigation in the long-COVID phase shows the absence of hair follicles from both the epidermal and dermal layers, the destruction of adipose tissues, and the devastation of the epidermal layer. Further, treatment of these mice with a 15 amino acid synthetic peptide, SPIKENET (SPK), which was effective in preventing Spike glycoprotein-1 binding with host receptors, as well as has a potent anti-inflammatory response to severe inflammatory stimulus) restored the loss of hair follicles and re-architected the epidermal and dermal layers. Additionally, destruction in fatty tissue in the infected mice was successfully restored post-treatment with SPK. These findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2 initiates the changes early post-infection, leading to devastating skin alterations in the long term which can be prevented by our newly identified peptide drug SPK.

The introduction of three single nucleotide mutations into the genome of the virulent RVFV ZH548 strain allows the rescue of a fully attenuated virus in mice (ZH548-rA2). These mutations are located in the viral genes encoding the RdRp and the non-structural protein NSs. This paper shows the results obtained after subcutaneous inoculation of ZH548-rA2 in adult sheep and subsequent challenge with the parental virus (ZH548-rC1). Inoculation with ZH548-rA2 virus caused no detectable clinical or pathological effect in sheep, whereas inoculation of the parental rC1 virus caused lesions compatible with viral infection characterized by the presence of scattered hepatic necrosis. Viral infection was confirmed by immunohistochemistry, with hepatocytes within the necrotic foci appearing as the main cells immunolabelled against viral antigen. Furthermore, inoculation of sheep with rA2 virus prevented the liver damage expected after rC1 virus inoculation, suggesting a protective efficacy in sheep which correlated with the induction of both humoral and cell mediated immune responses.

Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) is a (genus, Potyvirus; family, Potyviridae) is a widespread, deleterious, and the most damaging pathogen of sugarcane ((Saccharum officinarum L. and Saccharum spp.) which causes a substantial barrier to producing high sugarcane earning. Sugarcane mosaic disease (SCMD) is caused by, single or compound infection of SCMV, disseminated by the several aphid vectors in a non-persistent manner. SCMV has flexuous filamentous particle of 700-750 nm long, which encapsidated a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA molecule of 9575 nucleotides. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated antiviral innate immunity is an evolutionary conserved, key biological process in eukaryotes and has evolved as an antiviral defence system to interfere with viral genomes for controlling infections in plants. The current study aims to analyze sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. and Saccharum spp.) locus-derived microRNAs (sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs) with predicted potential for targeting the SCMV +ssRNA-encoded mRNAs, using a predictive approach that involves five algorithms. The ultimate goal of this research is to mobilize the in silico- predicted endogenous sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs to experimentally trigger the catalytic RNAi pathway and generate sugarcane cultivars to evaluate the potential antiviral resistance surveillance ability and capacity for SCMV. Experimentally validated mature sugarcane (S. officinarum, 2n = 8X = 80) and (S. spp., 2n = 100-120) sof-miRNA/ssp-miRNA sequences (n = 28) were downloaded from the miRBase database and aligned with the SCMV genome (KY548506). Among the 28 targeting mature locus-derived sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs evaluated, one sugarcane miRNA homolog, sof-miR159c, was identified to have a predicted miRNA binding site, at nucleotide position 3847 of the SCMV genome targeting CI ORF. To verify the accuracy of the target prediction accuracy and to determine, whether the sugarcane sof-miRNA/ssp-miRNA could bind the predicted SCMV mRNA target(s), we constructed an integrated Circos plot. A genome-wide in-silico-predicted miRNA-mediated target gene regulatory network has implicated to validate interactions necessary to warrant in vivo analysis. The current work provides valuable computational evidence for the generation of SCMV-resistant sugarcane cultivars.

Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness in the United States, Europe, and Asia. Borrelia burgdorferi, a spirochete bacterium transmitted by the tick vector Ixodes scapularis, causes Lyme disease in the U.S. If untreated, Lyme arthritis, carditis, and meningitis will occur. Given the absence of a human Lyme disease vaccine, we developed a vaccine using the rabies virus vaccine vector, BNSP333, and an outer surface borrelial protein BBI39. To incorporate BBI39 into the RABV virion, we generated a chimeric BBI39 antigen, BBI39RVG, by fusing it with the final amino acids of the RABV glycoprotein. Here we demonstrated that BBI39RVG antigen was incorporated into the RABV virion, and mice vaccinated with our RABV-BBI39RVG vaccine induced high amounts of BBI39-specific antibodies which are maintained long-term. The BBI39 antibodies neutralized Borrelia in vaccinated mice when challenged with Borrelia burgdorferi by either syringe injection or infected ticks, and reduced Lyme disease pathology.

Dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) is responsible for dengue epidemics on a global scale and is recognized for being associated with severe cases of the disease. This study conducted the phylogenetic investigation of DENV-2 in the Northern region of Brazil. DENV-2 isolates from 2017 to 2021, originating from Northern Brazilian states, were selected. Only one lineage (I) of the Asian-American genotype and one lineage (5) of the cosmopolitan genotype were observed. All sequences of the Asian-American genotype used in this study were segregated into a paraphyletic subgroup aligned with sequences from an American clade. These results indicate a probable geographic link starting from Puerto Rico. Additionally, sequences from Acre were identified and grouped into a monophyletic clade of the cosmopolitan genotype. These results indicate the cocirculation of two DENV-2 distinct lineages: Lineage 1, Asian-American genotype (probable origin from Puerto Rico); Lineage 5, cosmopolitan genotype (probable origin from Peru). Our results provide important data regarding the study of DENV genotypes and lineages distribution, as well as opening up possibilities for probable introduction and dissemination routes.

Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the most common cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in new-borns, with all children being infected before the age of two. Reinfections are very common throughout life, and can cause severe respiratory infections in the elderly and immunocompromised adults. Although vaccines and preventive antibodies have recently been licensed for use in specific subpopulations of patients, there is still no therapeutic treatment commonly available for these infections. Here, we investigated the potential antiviral activity of Retro-2.2, a derivative of the cellular retrograde transport inhibitor Retro-2, against hRSV. We show that Retro-2.2 inhibits hRSV replication in cell culture, and impairs the ability of hRSV to form syncytia. Our results suggest that Retro-2.2 treatment affects virus spread by disrupting the trafficking of the viral de novo synthetized F and G glycoproteins to the plasma membrane, leading to a defect in virion morphogenesis. Taken together, our data show that targeting intracellular transport may be an effective strategy against hRSV infection.

We evaluated the transcriptional response of interferon (IFN)-related genes in rock bream iridovirus (RBIV)-infected rock bream under high-, low-, or no-mortality conditions induced by different stocking water temperatures. Under the high susceptibility condition (group A, water temperature 26 °C, 100% mortality), only the Mx gene was expressed early, with prolonged expression, and with heavy viral loads of approximately 106–107 major capsid protein gene copies/μL from 4 to 10 days post infection (dpi). However, IRF1, IRF3, IRF8, STAT1, ISG15, PKR, Viperin, GVIN1, IFI44, and ISG56 were activated at later time points (8 dpi) and then quickly decreased (10 dpi). For the low susceptibility condition, the water temperature was set at 23 °C for 7 days (group B) and then reduced to 17 °C. Group B exhibited a 28% mortality rate, in which persistent and effective antiviral responses were observed for long periods of time. In particular, at 20 and 22 dpi, when virus replication was peaked at approximately 107/μL, the expressions of most of the IFN-related genes (IRF1, IRF3, IRF8, Mx, STAT1, ISG15, PKR, Viperin, GVIN1, IFI44, and ISG56) were significantly higher in group B than in the control group. Moreover, prolonged and higher levels of IRF3 (at least 30 dpi), IRF8 (at least 30 dpi), ISG15 (at least 30 dpi), PKR (at least 28 dpi), Viperin (at least 30 dpi), and IFI44 (at least 30 dpi) were also observed in the recovery stage of infection. Under the no-susceptibility condition at 17 °C (0% mortality), significantly elevated levels of IRF3, Mx, ISG15, and PKR were observed mostly until 20 dpi. The findings indicate that RBIV infection can induce an efficient IFN-mediated antiviral immune response in low- and no-susceptibility conditions. The findings could be valuable for effective control of viral pathogens in fish.

Although the COVID-19 pandemic appears to be diminishing, the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants represents a threat to humans due to its inherent transmissibility, immunological evasion, virulence, and invulnerability to existing therapies. The previous COVID-19 pandemic affected more than 500 million people and caused over 6 million deaths. Vaccines are essential, but in circumstances when vaccination is not accessible or in individuals with compromised immune systems, drugs can give additional protection. Targeting host signaling pathways is recommended due to their genomic stability and resistance barriers. Plant-derived products, which have been used in traditional medicine for treating pathological conditions, offer structurally novel therapeutic compounds including anti-viral. In addition, plant-derived bioactive substances might serve as the ideal basis for developing sustainable/efficient/cost-effective anti-viral alternatives. Epigenetic modifications in the genome can affect gene expression without altering DNA sequence. Host cells can use epigenetic gene regulation as a mechanism to silence incoming viral DNA molecules, while viruses have recruited cellular epi transcriptomic (covalent modifications of RNAs) modifiers to increase the translational efficiency and transcript stability of viral transcripts to enhance viral gene expression and replication. Moreover, viruses manipulate host cells' epigenetic machinery to ensure productive viral infections. Environmental factors, such as natural products, may influence epigenetic modifications. In this review, we are exploring the potential of plant-derived substances as epigenetic modifiers for broad-spectrum anti-viral activity, reviewing modulation processes and anti-viral effects on DNA and RNA viruses, and addressing future research objectives in this rapidly emerging field.

In mammals, the role of interleukin-18 (IL-18) in the immune response is to drive inflammatory and, normally therefore, anti-viral responses. IL-18 also shows promise as a vaccine adjuvant in mammals. Chicken IL-18 (chIL-18) has been cloned. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of chIL-18 to act as a vaccine adjuvant in the context of a live recombinant Fowlpox virus vaccine (fpIBD1) against Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV). fpIBD1 protects against mortality, but not against damage to the bursa of Fabricius caused by IBDV infection. The Fowlpox virus genome itself contains several candidate immunomodulatory genes, including potential IL-18 binding proteins (IL-18bp). We have knocked out (Δ) the potential IL-18bp genes in fpIBD1 and inserted (::) the cDNA encoding chIL-18 into fpIBD1 in the non-essential ORF030, generating five new viral constructs –fpIBD1::chIL-18, fpIBD1ΔORF073, fpIBD1ΔORF073::chIL-18, fpIBD1ΔORF214 and fpIBD1ΔORF214::chIL-18. The subsequent protection from challenge with virulent IBDV, as measured by viral load and bursal damage, given by these altered fpIBD1 strains, was compared to that given by the original fpIBD1. The results show that chIL-18 can act as a vaccine adjuvant, giving complete protection against challenge, with no detectable virus or damage in the bursa of Fabricius.

This study proposes a nonlinear mathematical model of virus transmission based on the SEIR model. In this study, the interaction between viruses and immune cells is investigated using phase-space analysis of a mathematical model. Specifically, it is focused on the dynamics and stability behavior of the mathematical model of a virus spread in a population and its interaction with human immune systems cells. The endemic equilibrium points are found and local stability analysis of all equilibria points of the related model is obtained. Further, the global stability analysis either, at disease-free equilibria, or in endemic equilibria is discussed by constructing the Lyapunov function which shows the validity of the concern model exists. Finally, a simulated solution is achieved and the relationship between viruses and immune cells is highlighted.

Since the onset of the COVID‐19 pandemic, humanity has experienced the spread and circulation of several SARS-CoV-2 variants that differed in transmissibility, contagiousness, and the ability to escape from vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies. However, issues related to the differences of variant-specific immune responses, remain insufficiently studied. The aim of this study was to compare the parameters of the humoral immune responses in two groups of patients with acute COVID-19 who were infected during the circulation period of the D614G and the Delta variants of SARS-CoV-2. Sera from 48 patients with acute COVID-19 were tested for SARS-CoV-2 binding and neutralizing antibodies using six assays. We found that serum samples from the D614G period demonstrated 3.9‐ and 1.6‐fold increase in RBD- and Spike‐specific IgG binding with Wild type antigens compared with Delta variant antigens (p &lt; 0.01). Cluster analysis showed the existence of two well-separated clusters. The first cluster mainly consisted of D614G period patients and the second cluster predominantly included patients from Delta period. The results thus obtained indicate that humoral immune responses in D614G- and Delta-specific infections can be characterized by variant-specific signatures. This can be taken into account when developing new variant-specific vaccines.

A relevant aspect in the epidemiology of Tegumentary Leishmaniasis (TL) is the Leishmania parasites carrying a viral endosymbiont Leishmania RNA Virus 1 (LRV1), a dsRNA virus. Leishmania parasites carrying LRV1 are prone to causing more severe TL symptoms, increasing the likelihood of unfavorable clinical outcomes. LRV1 has been observed in cultured strains of five L. (Viannia) species, and host specificity was suggested when studying LRV1 from L. braziliensis and L. guyanensis strains. The coevolution hypothesis of LRV1 and Leishmania was based on phylogenetic analyses, implying an association between LRV1 genotypes, Leishmania species, and their geographic origins. This study aimed to investigate LRV1 specificity to Leishmania (Viannia) species hosts by analyzing LRV1 from L. (Viannia) species. To this end, LRV1 was screened in L. (Viannia) species other than L. braziliensis or L. guyanensis, and it was detected in 11 out of 15 L. naiffi and in 2 out of 4 L. shawi. Phylogenetic analyses based on partial LRV1 genomic sequencing supported the hypothesis of host specificity, as LRV1 clustered according to their respective Leishmania species hosts. These findings underscore the importance of investigating Leishmania and LRV1 coevolution and its impact on Leishmania (Viannia) species dispersion and pathogenesis in the American Continent.

Aim: Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza H1N1 virus are common organisms associated with human infections. These infections could play a significant role in immune regulation. The study was performed to analyse the genome sequences of these organisms with human genome and study its functional significance. Methods: The study was performed to analyse the overlapping of genome sequences in Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza (H1N1) virus against human genome sequences by BLASTn sequence analysis. The alignments are studied against the corresponding genes for their functional significance with DAVID and NDEx software.Results: Several hits or overlapping nucleotide segments were identified. Between streptococcus and homo sapiens 287 overlaps were identified, and among influenza and homo sapiens 124 hits were identified. A wide range of functional significance of these genes were identified, and the results are presented in this study. The results show insights into functional pathways and biological activities associated with the respective vaccinations or infections by these microorganisms. Conclusion: The common organisms like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza H1N1 virus actively interact with the immune system and result in a wide range of immune regulations.

The etiological agent of various viral diseases has been identified, and clinical characteristics and complications of each disease are well known. In general, a viral disease appears as acute systemic inflammatory disease, but after acute infection, some patients remain asymptomatic carriers or suffer chronic viral diseases, suggesting that the phenomena are unavoidable processes for viruses’ coexistence with their hosts as virome in microbiota of human species. Although each viral disease has been described as having different pathophysiology, the host's control systems, including immune systems, against the insults from any viral infections, have the same components in previously healthy hosts. Therefore, considering the characteristics of the life cycle of viruses being dependent on the host cell and the same immune components of the host, it is reasonable assumption that there is a common immune mechanism to respond to the insults from all viral diseases. The authors discuss on the characteristics of virus infection and unresolved issues in viral diseases and propose a rationale of early immune modulators for acute insults from viral diseases based on our clinical experiences and the protein-homeostasis-system hypothesis.

In May 2022, WHO reported an outbreak of Mpox in several European countries which were previously Mpox free. Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) is a zoonotic viral disease endemic in Central and West Africa. The sudden emergence of Mpox outside Africa and its subsequent rapid spread lead the WHO to declare the outbreak as Public Health Emergency of International Concern. As of May 15, 2023, a total of 87,704 confirmed cases and 140 deaths had been reported from 111 countries and territories worldwide. Looking back on this outbreak one year later, several important questions have arisen. Here, we address these questions using the classic five Ws: What, When, Where, Who and Why? We discuss these questions and outline what needs to be done to prevent, or at least minimize, outbreaks from emerging and re-emerging viral infection.

Rabies, caused by the rabies virus (RABV), remains a significant public health issue in the Philippines despite efforts to control it. To eliminate rabies by 2030, effective surveillance strategies are crucial. In this study, we examined RABV evolution and phylodynamics in the Davao Region using genome sequences from Davao City and nearby provinces. We adapted the RABV ARTIC Protocol for Oxford Nanopore High-Throughput Sequencing to optimize workflow efficiency under limited resources. Comparing new virus samples collected from June 2019 to June 2021 (n=38) with baseline samples from June 2018 to May 2019 (n=49), new sub-clades were observed in the phylogenetic tree, suggesting divergence from older variants that were previously undetected. Most of the new viruses belonged to the Asian SEA4_A1.1.1 lineage, but new (SEA4_B1 and SEA4_B1.1) and emerging (SEA4_B1.1_E1) lineages that have never been reported in the Philippines were also identified. The baseline study reported phylogeographic clustering of RABV isolates from the same areas. However, this pattern was disrupted in the current biosurveillance, with variants detected in areas outside the original cluster. Furthermore, our findings revealed significant transmission routes between Davao City and neighboring provinces, contrasting with the predominantly intra-city transmission observed in the baseline study. These results underscore the need for ongoing and timely genomic surveillance to monitor genetic diversity changes and the emergence of novel strains, as well as to track alterations in transmission pathways. Implementing cost-effective next generation sequencing workflows will facilitate the integration of genomic surveillance into rabies control programs, particularly in resource-limited settings. Collaborations between different sectors can empower local laboratories and experts in genomic technologies and analysis.

No system nor standardized analytical procedures at commercial laboratories exist to facilitate and accurately measure potential viable virus contamination in feed ingredients and complete feeds globally. As a result, there is high uncertainty of the extent of swine virus contamination in global feed supply chains. Many knowledge gaps need to be addressed to improve our ability to prevent virus contamination and transmission in swine feed. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge involving: 1) the need for biosecurity protocols to identify production, processing, storage, and transportation conditions that may cause virus contamination of feed ingredients and complete feed, 2) challenges of measuring virus inactivation, 3) virus survival in feed ingredients during transportation and storage, 4) minimum infectious doses, 5) differences between using a Food Safety Objective versus a Performance Objective as potential approaches for risk assessment in swine feed, 6) swine virus inactivation from thermal and irradiation processes, and chemical mitigants in feed ingredients and complete feed, 7) efficacy of virus decontamination strategies in feed mills, 9) benefits of functional ingredients, nutrients, and commercial feed additives in pig diets during a viral health challenge, and 10) considerations for improved risk assessment models of virus contamination in feed supply chains.

Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) is a deleterious pathogen which causes widespread Sugarcane mosaic disease (SCMD) and is classified in the genus Potyvirus (Potyviridae), disseminated by the aphid vector. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated antiviral innate immunity is a key biological process and antiviral defence system to interfere with viral genomes for controlling plant pathogens. The current study aims to analyze sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L. and Saccharum spp.) locus-derived microRNAs (sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs) with predicted potential for targeting the SCMV +ssRNA-encoded mRNAs, using ‘five algorithms’ approach. The ultimate goal in this research is to mobilize the in silico endogenous predicted sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs to trigger RNAi catalytic pathway experimentally and generate sugarcane cultivars for evaluating potential antiviral resistance monitoring capability and capacity for SCMV. Experimentally validated mature sugarcane (S. officinarum, 2n = 8X = 80) and (S. spp., 2n = 100-120) sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs (n = 28) were acquired for alignment with the SCMV genome. Of the 28 targeting mature locus-derived sof-miRNAs/ssp-miRNAs investigated, one sugarcane miRNA homolog, sof-miR159c, was concluded to localize potential binding site at genomic nucleotide site 3847 targeting CI ORF of SCMV. In order to validate target prediction accuracy, whether the sugarcane sof-miRNA/ssp-miRNA might bind predicted SCMV mRNA target(s), we created an integrated Circos plot. Genome-wide in-silico-predicted miRNA-mediated target gene regulatory network validated interactions that warrant in vivo analysis. The current work provides valuable evidence and biological material for generating SCMV-resistant sugarcane varieties.

Rapid emergence of evasive SARS-CoV-2 variants is an on-going challenge for COVID-19 vaccinology. Traditional virus neutralization tests provide detailed datasets of neutralization titers against the viral variants. Such datasets are difficult to interpret and do not immediately inform on the sufficiency of the breadth of antibody response. Some of these issues could be tackled using the antigenic cartography approach. In this study, we created antigenic maps using neutralization titers of sera from donors who received Sputnik V booster vaccine after primary Sputnik V vaccination and compared them with the antigenic maps based on serum neutralization titers of Comirnaty-boosted donors. Traditional analysis of neutralization titers against WT, Alpha, Beta, Delta, Omicron BA.1 and BA.4/BA.5 showed a significant booster humoral response after both homologous (Sputnik V) and heterologous (Comirnaty) revaccinations against all the studied viral variants. However, despite this, a more in-depth analysis using antigenic cartography revealed that Omicron variants remain antigenically distant from WT, which is indicative of the formation of insufficient levels of cross-neutralizing antibodies. The implications of these findings may be significant when developing a new vaccine regimen.

After eight decades, the largest outbreak of sylvatic yellow fever virus (YFV) was recorded in Brazil between 2016-2018. Besides human and NHP surveillance, the entomo-virological approach is considered as a complementary tool. For this study, a total of 2904 mosquitoes of Aedes, Haemagogus and Sabethes genera from six Brazilian states (Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Pará, and Tocantins), were collected and grouped in 246 pools, which were tested for YFV using RT-qPCR. We detected 20 positive pools from Minas Gerais, 5 from Goiás, and 1 from Bahia, including 12 of Hg. janthinomys and 5 of Ae. albopictus. This is the first description of natural YFV infection in this species and warns of the likelihood of urban YFV re-emergence with the Ae. albopictus as a potential bridge vector. Three YFV sequences from Hg. janthinomys from Goiás and one from Minas Gerais, as well as one from Ae. albopictus from Minas Gerais clustered within the 2016-2018 outbreak clade, indicating YFV spread from Midwest and its infection in a main and in a likely-novel bridging vector species. Entomo-virological surveillance is critical in the YFV monitoring in Brazil, which could highlight the need to strengthen YFV surveillance, vaccination coverage, and vector control measures.