Abstract: The investigation of lunar polar regions is critical for understanding the characteristics of the moon, such as the crustal evolution, volatile retention, and in-situ resource utilization. In addition, it serves as an important reference and prerequisite for future lunar exploration missions and the establishment of a long-term scientific research station. However, quantitative multi-oxide mapping in these regions remains limited since previous efforts mainly focused on FeO at coarse spatial resolutions (~1 km/pixel). To address this gap, an inversion model for a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) to obtain high-resolution (~500 m/pixel) abundance distributions of six major oxides—FeO, TiO₂, Al₂O₃, CaO, MgO, and SiO₂—across the lunar polar regions (65°–90°N/S) is investigated in this research. The developed 1D-CNN model, utilizing the KAGUYA SP hyperspectral data and oxide results from Bian et al. (2025) as sample data, achieved high inversion accuracy, as evidenced by R² > 0.94 for all oxides and RMSE < 0.3 wt.% except for Al₂O₃. The inverted oxide maps reveal that the materials in the south polar region (83°–90°S) are compositionally uniform and dominated by feldspathic highland lithologies, which are distinct from the ejecta or mantle-derived materials typically associated with the South Pole–Aitken basin. These results provide a new insight into the crustal origin of the lunar south pole. Moreover, comparisons of the nine Artemis Ⅲ candidate landing regions showed overall compositional homogeneity, suggesting similar highland-derived sources, and of the nine regions, the Slater Plain and de Gerlache Rim 2 areas were identified as optimal targets for capturing resource diversity within feasible operational ranges. These findings not only fill a critical gap in quantitative geochemical mapping of the lunar poles but also provide essential references for the Artemis Ⅲ and Chang’E-7 missions, supporting landing region selection for future missions, resource evaluation, and in-situ utilization strategies.

Abstract: Geomagnetic activity reflects the complex coupling between the solar wind, magnetosphere and ionosphere. While the global Kp index serves as a standard proxy for geomagnetic disturbances, it obscures regional variations linked to local current systems and ionospheric conductivity. This study investigates regional features of geomagnetic activity using the local K index from the Almaty (AAA) observatory and compares its temporal dynamics with Kp for 2007 - 2025. A combination of statistical, spectral, wavelet, and nonlinear methods was applied, including power spectral density, continuous and cross-wavelet transforms, multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis, and permutation entropy. These approaches capture both linear and nonlinear features of variability and reveal scale-dependent structures in geomagnetic fluctuations. The results show a high correlation (r ≈ 0.84) between K and Kp, but with a consistent positive offset of the local index, indicating sensitivity to regional ionospheric processes. Wavelet coherence highlights strong coupling in the 13–27-day band associated with solar rotation. Multifractal spectra reveal broader, more heterogeneous scaling in Kp and narrower, more intermittent dynamics in K during disturbed periods. Local indices, like K thus provide essential insight into mid-latitude electrodynamics, complementing global measures in characterising the nonlinear spatio-temporal complexity of geomagnetic activity.

Abstract: Autonomous navigation based on the stellar aberration effect derives the spacecraft’s velocity vector from the apparent stellar displacements. While promising, this technique is highly sensitive to distortions in the optical sensors onboard, requiring milliarcsecond-level correction. The plate-model method provides classical distortion correction, but formal uncertainties of plate constants depend on the number and spatial distribution of reference stars, catalog position errors, and sensor measurement noise. These uncertainties propagate through the plate model to the corrected positions of target stars, ultimately limiting the precision of the navigation observables. In this study, we systematically investigate the error-propagation mechanism of the plate model in the context of stellar-aberration navigation. We construct an all-sky simulated navigation catalog based on Gaia Date Release 3 and then establish a complete mathematical error-propagation chain from reference-star covariances to plate-constant solutions and finally to target-star positions. Adopting the six-constant plate model, we perform Monte Carlo simulations over the entire sky to quantify the influence of reference-star number and distribution on target-star positional precision. The results show that when more than ∼10 reference stars are available and well distributed within a field, the propagated plate-model error remains below 1 milliarcsecond, reaching 0.2–0.4 mas under favorable conditions. These findings demonstrate that plate-model errors are not the dominant limitation for stellar-aberration based autonomous navigation, provided that sufficient reference stars are included in the solution.

Abstract: The relationship between humidity, pressure, temperature and wind speed measured at a network of stations on the Japanese islands and the seismic regime is studied for time 1973-2025. For each of the parameters, weighted average time series were constructed using the principal component method. Time series of weighted average parameters were subjected to wavelet decomposition. For wavelet decomposition levels the amplitudes of the envelopes and the points of their local extrema were found, which were compared with the times of earthquakes. The problem of estimating the advance measure of envelope extremum points relative to earthquake time moments was considered using a model of interacting point processes. For a sequence of 213 strong earthquakes with a magnitude of at least 6.5, the same number of the largest local maxima and the smallest local minima were selected for the extrema of envelopes amplitude of each parameter. It turned out that the largest advance measures occur for the 7th level of decomposition (periods from 16 to 32 days). Two advance mechanisms were identified: one mechanism is associated with the trigger effect of cyclones on seismicity, and the second with the occurrence of atmospheric earthquake precursors.

Abstract: Future lunar exploration efforts rely on an improved understanding of regolith behavior, as evidenced by the adhesion problems encountered during the Apollo missions. The Lunaris Payload, a compact lunar instrument developed in Poland, aims to assess the adhesion of lunar regoliths to various materials using an optical method chosen to meet strict mass constraints. We introduce and validate a resource-constrained optical method to estimate three-dimensional volumes of lunar regolith particles from two-dimensional imagery, using high-resolution micro-CT as ground truth. The approach supports in-situ surface characterization and dust-related risk assessment under the mass and power constraints typical of small payloads. Micro-CT scans were used to establish accurate reference volumes, and multiple geometric approximation methods were applied, including spherical, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical models, to derive volume estimates from a 2D representation. Comparative analyses demonstrate that ellipsoid-based models, particularly those that incorporate a fixed aspect ratio, provide the most accurate volume estimations. These findings offer a practical in situ methodology for analysing the volumes of regolith particles, thus advancing the capacity of the Lunaris mission to characterise lunar adhesion of regolith particles and supporting broader efforts in lunar resource utilisation and habitat construction. To our knowledge, this is the first benchmarking of six 2D-to-3D volume models against micro-CT for lunar regolith adhesion applications. Our findings demonstrate that ellipsoid-based methods achieve the best results, offering a validated, efficient technique for in-situ dust characterization critical for future lunar missions.

Abstract: To address the challenge of effectively filtering out noise components in GNSS coordinate time series, we propose a denoising method based on parameter-optimized Variational Mode Decomposition (VMD). The method combines permutation entropy with mutual information as the fitness function, and uses the crayfish (COA) algorithm to adaptively obtain the optimal parameter combination of the number of modal decompositions and quadratic penalty factors for VMD. employs permutation entropy combined with mutual information as the fitness function and utilizes the Crayfish Optimization Algorithm (COA) to adaptively determine the optimal parameter combination for VMD, including the number of decomposition modes and the quadratic penalty factor. The GNSS coordinate time series is decomposed into several intrinsic mode function (IMF) components, and sample entropy is used to identify the effective modal components, which are then reconstructed into the denoised signal, achieving effective separation of signal and noise. The experiments were conducted using simulated signals and 52 raw GNSS measurement data from CMONOC to compare and analyze the COA-VMPE-WD method with wavelet denoising (WD), empirical mode decomposition (EMD), ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD), and Complete Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition with Adaptive Noise (CEEMDAN) methods. The result shows that the COA-VMPE-WD method can effectively remove noise from GNSS coordinate time series and preserve the original features of the signal, with the most significant effect on the U component, the COA-VMPE-WD method reduced station velocity by an average of 50.00%, 59.09%, 18.18%, and 64.00% compared to the WD, EMD, EEMD, and CEEMDAN methods, The noise reduction effect is higher than the other four methods, providing reliable data for subsequent analysis and processing.

Abstract: Space weather exerts a significant influence on the Earth’s atmosphere, driving a variety of physical processes, including the production of cosmogenic radionuclides. Among these, ⁷Be is a naturally occurring radionuclide formed through spallation reactions induced by cosmic-ray showers interacting with atmospheric constituents, primarily oxygen and nitrogen. Over long timescales, the atmospheric concentration of ⁷Be exhibits a direct correlation with the cosmic-ray flux reaching the Earth and an inverse correlation with solar activity, which modulates this flux via variations of the heliosphere. The large availability of ⁷Be concentration data, resulting from its use as a natural tracer employed in atmospheric transport studies and in monitoring the fallout from radiological incidents such as the Chernobyl disaster, can also be exploited to investigate the impact of space weather conditions on the terrestrial atmosphere and related geophysical processes. The present study analyzes a long-term dataset of monthly ⁷Be activity concentrations in air samples collected at ground level since 1987 at the ENEA Casaccia Research Center in Rome, Italy. In particular, the statistical dependency and correlation of this time series with the galactic cosmic ray flux on Earth and solar activity have been investigated. Data from a ground-based neutron monitor and sunspot numbers have been used as proxies for galactic cosmic rays and solar activity, respectively. De-trending techniques were applied to the ⁷Be monthly time series to extract its low-frequency component associated with cosmic drivers, which is partially hide by high-frequency modulations induced by atmospheric dynamics. For Solar Cycles 22, 23, 24, and partially 25, clear statistical associations were identified, indicating that a substantial portion of the relationship between stratospheric ⁷Be concentrations and cosmic drivers is captured by linear correlations, while dependence analyses suggest the possible presence of additional non-linear components. These findings support the potential use of ⁷Be as a quantitative indicator of cosmic ray modulation and, indirectly, of solar activity.

Abstract: The Earth–Moon system has undergone continuous evolution across all timescales since its formation. Earth's rotation is gradually slowing, the Moon's rotation is decelerating, and the Moon is slowly receding from Earth. These progressive changes affect key planetary parameters, including the length of day (LOD), the number of days per year (DOY), and the Earth–Moon distance (DOM). Building on the author's earlier work, this paper presents a set of mathematical equations to model these dynamics and predict LOD, DOY, and DOM over time. The results derived from this model show strong agreement with historical data, offering a robust framework for understanding the long-term evolution of the Earth–Moon system. To address the longstanding Lunar crisis—where conventional tidal friction models predict an unrealistically close Earth–Moon proximity in the distant past and many assumptions and parameters must be introduced to help reconcile the models with observations—this study proposes a novel hypothesis: a significantly lower volume of surface liquid water in Earth's early history may have reduced tidal dissipation. The subsequent increase in oceanic volume could be attributed to the capture of a large icy comet, a scenario supported by precedent such as the 1994 collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter. This mechanism offers a plausible resolution to the tidal friction discrepancy and deepens our understanding of planetary evolution.

Abstract: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been used to explore the chemistry of three regions of Mars on respective missions by NASA and CNSA, with CNES contributions. All three LIBS instruments use ~100 mm diameter telescopes projecting pulsed infrared laser beams of 10-14 mJ to enable LIBS at 2-10 m distances, eliminating the need to position the rover and instrument directly onto targets. Over 1.3 million LIBS spectra have been used to provide routine compositions for eight major elements and several minor and trace elements on > 3,000 targets on Mars. Onboard calibration targets common to all three instruments allow careful intercomparison of results. Operating over thirteen years, ChemCam on Curiosity has explored lacustrine sediments and diagenetic features in Gale crater, which was a long-lasting (> 1 My) lake during Mars’ Hesperian period. SuperCam on Perseverance is exploring the ultramafic igneous floor, fluvial-deltaic features, and the rim of Jezero crater. MarSCoDe on the Zhurong rover investigated during one year the local blocks, soils, and transverse aeolian ridges of Utopia Planitia. The pioneering work of these three stand-off LIBS instruments paves the way for future space exploration with LIBS, where advantages of light-element (H, C, N, O) quantification can be used on icy regions.

Abstract: Spacecraft imaging of planetary surfaces often suffers from motion-induced blur when the relative velocity between the spacecraft and target is high. We present an automated deblurring framework that derives a one-dimensional point spread function (PSF) directly from the spacecraft’s imaging geometry—without relying on star-field calibration—and applies Wiener deconvolution to restore image sharpness. We validate our method on fourteen sub-meter-per-pixel SRC images of Phobos acquired by Mars Express over four distinct orbits. With an approximately 40-pixel linear PSF and an assumed 16 dB noise level, our pipeline significantly enhances surface feature visibility, enabling fine-scale geological analysis. This technique is readily transferable to other motion-degraded planetary datasets.

Abstract: Total Electron Content (TEC) allows to evaluate the state of the ionosphere. Radio waves like GNSS signals traversing the ionosphere suffer delays and refraction. Ionospheric plasma irregularities may be generated in the equatorial regions after sunset and extend to low latitudes forming large plasma depleted regions named ionospheric bubbles. Signature of these bubbles can be observed at TEC maps. Inside plasma bubbles smaller scale size irregularities are generated causing scintillation in GNSS signals. This work compared TEC maps from some sources, with different temporal and spatial resolutions/coverage. Significant differences were found. For each source, there are differences in the treatment and preprocessing of raw data in order to get the absolute TEC values, which are interpolated to get grid values of the map. Even for the same source there are significant differences in the density of monitoring stations according to the region. A case of study concerning scintillation is also analyzed using the corresponding TEC and scintillation maps. TEC maps employed here encompass the years from 2022 to 2024, in the growing phase of the current solar cycle 25. The months of March, June, September and December were selected to take into account the TEC seasonal variation.

Abstract: We can define the Universe as all that exists or all we can ever see. Each of the definitions will open doors for different theories. For example, is our Universe unique to our solar system? Are there other universes? Does our Universe parallel to another universe or inside another Universe? We can ask many questions related to our Universe. Observers have predicted theories about the Universe, such as Bubble, Oscillating, Holographic, Electric, Parallel Universe (Multiverse), Inflationary multiverse, Quantum multiverse, and Brane multiverse. Some of the Universe types are briefly explained and compared in this article. This article aims to predict a new Universe theory in the literature. The observers' data shows that Earth rotates around the Sun while the solar system rotates inside the Milky Way Galaxy. We also know that galaxies rotate around themselves and float inside the Universe. Our article predicted that our Universe is rotating and floating inside a shared space, which we called Henry's Universe.We can define the Universe as all that exists or all we can ever see. Each of the definitions will open doors for different theories. For example, is our Universe unique to our solar system? Are there other universes? Does our Universe parallel to another universe or inside another Universe? We can ask many questions related to our Universe. Observers have predicted theories about the Universe, such as Bubble, Oscillating, Holographic, Electric, Parallel Universe (Multiverse), Inflationary multiverse, Quantum multiverse, and Brane multiverse. Some of the Universe types are briefly explained and compared in this article. This article aims to predict a new Universe theory in the literature. The observers' data shows that Earth rotates around the Sun while the solar system rotates inside the Milky Way Galaxy. We also know that galaxies rotate around themselves and float inside the Universe. Our article predicted that our Universe is rotating and floating inside a shared space, which we called Henry's Universe.

Abstract: We present techniques for a machine learning approach to predict stellar classes of stars using their physical and observable characteristics. Stellar classification is the categorization of stars into spectral types and subclasses based on temperature, color, and various other properties, and it is a fundamental aspect of astronomy, providing vital insights into stellar properties and evolutionary stages. By taking the general class of a star (e.g., G2 being the Sun), our model leverages a diverse range of input features, such as luminosity, surface temperature, and color indices, to predict a star’s spectral class with viable accuracy. Among several implemented algorithms, Random Forest Classifier achieved an accuracy of 76% (log loss 0.69), outperforming other methods such as XGBoost (71%), K-Nearest-Neighbors (50%), and Logistic Regression (23%). We attribute the lower performance of XGBoost to overlapping threshold features and K-Nearest-Neighbors to the low linear correlations of the data. The results demonstrate the high potential of machine learning to automate feature classification within astronomy, such as spectral classification efficiently and with high accuracy, significantly enhancing our capacity to analyze large data sets in modern astronomy.

Abstract: Throughout the second part of the Modern Era, leading researchers in astronomy, physics and applied statistics into astrophysics have brought a novel hypothesis, in which it was speculated that the Milky Way will experience a clash with another galaxy as a result of an intersection in their motion. Currently, such a statement is purely speculative in nature, although specific signs that such a hypothesis reflects real-world phenomena have started appearing, which cover seemingly increased frequencies and extents of planetary and stellar alignments within the Milky Way. Any occurrence of such a phenomenon may be probable due to increased electromagnetic and gravitational influences from outside the galaxy, which may hint at an existing approach of a different galaxy towards the Milky Way. It may be important to mention that potential effects of a multi-galactic crash would involve a general polarisation of natural and spatial phenomena, given that a multi-galactic interaction and clash would involve a sharp, unprecedented increase in the extent of electromagnetic and gravitational fluctuations of influences toward the Earth, which would affect all natural phenomena upon it, including the climate, the weather, human and animal psychology and wellbeing, as well as the effects of seas and oceans upon nearby shores. Furthermore, if the hypothesis in which major electromagnetic and gravitational influences toward specific, earthquake-prone geographical areas of the Earth would increase the probability of the occurrence of novel earthquakes and aftershocks in such areas is proven to be evidence-based, then a multi-galactic clash involving the Milky Way could also result in a sharp increase in both the frequency and extent of earthquakes throughout the Earth. Furthermore, it could be that the increasing number of people “bumping” into numerical and geometrical coincidences of symmetry at random (i.e. an increasing number of people bumping into “angel numbers”) is a sign of existing increases in electromagnetic and gravitational influences from the cosmos, which may very well reflect a scenario of an approaching multi-galactic interaction that may in a lower probability scenario even implicate the Milky Way (i.e. perhaps with Andromeda in approximately 4.5 billion years). According to Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, time is not an absolute entity, but a relative measure that can be contracted or dilated depending on the observer’s perspective. Nonetheless, such relativistic effects are technically imperceptible on Earth, just as passengers aboard a high-speed train experience stability and consistency within the train, regardless of its external speed. Similarly, the inhabitants of the Milky Way could remain unaware of significant relativistic changes in galactic motion, whilst natural and cosmic phenomena within the galaxy would paradoxically accelerate in a manner reflective to the acceleration of time, thereby “transforming” the 4.5 billion years potentially into a much shorter time frame. If the Multiverse is real, then the same analogy applies for the inhabitants of the Universe. Furthermore, it may be important to observe whether any double-exponential growth in the speed of the approaching galaxies has been taken into consideration, which would broadly shorten the duration of 4.5 billion years and also change the relativistic states of time within the implicated galaxies - whilst keeping the internal measurements of time intact. Any real-world application of such an analogy may bring implications that deeply intersect scientific and philosophical research, perhaps even offering a hypothesis in which traditional cosmological models that suggest an 11-billion year process of evolution of physical matter, may not be mutually exclusive with theological narratives, such as a “Seven-Day Creation”. Some hypotheses have even proposed a paradoxical existence of a relative state of the speed of light, although empirical scientific evidence states that it is an absolute value, which constitutes the foundation of Albert Einstein’s research. Such hypotheses could nonetheless operate according to the Philosophical model of “destroy the Temple and rebuild It afterward”, potentially resulting in the creation of the most foundational type of a paradox in which the speed of light would be deemed as both relative and absolute, which could constitute “the paradox of all paradoxes”. Effects of any multi-galactic interaction implicating the Milky Way may accelerate the production of more stars and planetary systems, and preserve existing forms of life, given that a clash between Sagittarius Dwarf and the Milky Way may have resulted in the creation of the Solar System. Or, such an interaction deemed to probably occur, and in the distant future, could describe religious passages in which a phenomenon of “star falling” is mentioned, which could also involve an increasing number of asteroids falling upon Earth, given that fluctuations in gravitational influences could cause asteroids from the great belt nearby Jupiter to change their direction, leading to increased statistical probabilities that more asteroids will change their direction and be headed toward the Earth. Such a phenomenon could be deemed as “beyond monumental” in nature and even impact the state of time within the interacting galaxies, given its relative nature - potentially accelerating it considerably as the galaxies approach one another, in proportion with the level of fluctuations in electromagnetic influences toward the Solar System. Overall, the effects of a multi-galactic clash could either create more life or be catastrophic for human and animal life, potentially resulting in a phenomenon of unprecedented population loss in all life forms. Likewise, it may be important for research efforts to continue in order to determine whether the Milky Way is indeed in the course of experiencing an unprecedented intersection with a different galaxy, as well as for scientists, local and international authorities to devise plans of preparation for the purpose of precaution and ensuring that all guidelines of Health & Safety are met in case of any increased frequency and extent of natural disasters throughout the Earth, whilst keeping academic and scientific perspectives in an optimistic realm, based on the available evidence.

Abstract: We propose the Fractal Electromagnetic Hierarchy with Resonant Scaling (FEH-RS) model, a novel framework unifying the interaction of magnetic (unseen) and electric (physical) realms through fractal patterns, frequencies, and harmonics across scales. Extending Maxwell’s unification of electromagnetism, FEH-RS reveals 3-6-9 resonances dominating macro scales and phi (φ ≈ 1.618) resonances dominating micro scales, governed by mathematics. We validate the model using extensive datasets: Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), Cosmic Infrared Background (CIB), Galactic Center (Hubble Full Field), brain waves, biophotons, and hydrogen spectral lines, all showing clear frequency and fractal structures. A significant finding in the CIB—a dense bottom 1/3 section distinct from the top 2/3—may mark the dark energy influx ~5 billion years ago, aligning with cosmological timelines. Applied to a 100 MW AC generator, FEH-RS optimizes resonant energy transfer, offering a new standard for energy systems, cosmology, and biology.

Abstract: This paper thoroughly investigates lunar space weather, highlighting the complex dynamics and proposing a groundbreaking solution in the form of a Novel mission proposal called the Lunar Space Weather Observatory (LSWO) mission. Through meticulous analysis, various factors influencing the lunar environment, including solar activities, cosmic rays, and micrometeoroids, are examined to showcase their impact on the lunar surface and its environment. The paper outlines the LSWO mission's objectives, instrument payloads, and scientific rationale, emphasising its potential to bridge knowledge gaps and facilitate more informed decision-making in future lunar missions. Furthermore, the implications of understanding advanced lunar space weather are discussed, focusing on its relevance for future lunar communications and habitat establishment. The role of the LSWO mission in enhancing communication systems, ensuring astronaut safety, and optimising resource utilisation strategies are underscored, highlighting its significance for the sustainability and success of future lunar exploration endeavours. Overall, the paper offers a comprehensive overview of lunar space weather and proposes a pioneering solution that can significantly contribute to our understanding of lunar space weather and enhance the prospects of successful lunar exploration.

Abstract: Small object detection remains a challenge in remote sensing field due to feature loss during downsampling and interference from complex backgrounds. A novel network, termed SEMA-YOLO, is proposed in this paper as an enhanced YOLOv11-based framework incorporating three technical advancements. By fundamentally reducing information loss and incorporating a cross-scale feature fusion mechanism, the proposed framework significantly enhances small object detection performance. First, the Shallow Layer Enhancement (SLE) strategy reduces backbone depth and introduces small-object detection heads, thereby increasing feature map size and improving small object detection performance. Then, the Global Context Pooling-enhanced Adaptively Spatial Feature Fusion (GCP-ASFF) architecture is designed to optimize cross-scale feature interaction across four detection heads. Finally, the RFA-C3k2 module, which integrates Receptive Field Adaptation (RFA) with the C3k2 structure, is introduced to achieve more refined feature extraction. SEMA-YOLO demonstrates significant advantages in complex urban environments and dense target areas, while its generalization capability meets the detection requirements across diverse scenarios. Experimental results show that SEMA-YOLO achieves mAP50 scores of 72.5% on the RS-STOD dataset and 61.5% on the AI-TOD dataset, surpassing state-of-the-art models.

Abstract: An estimate of the trigger effect of the proton flux on seismicity is obtained. The proton flux time series with a time step of 5 minutes, 2000-2024, is analyzed. In each time interval of 5 days, statistics of the proton flux time series are calculated: mean values, logarithm of kurtosis, spectral slope, singularities spectrum support width, wavelet-based entropy and the Donoho-Johnston wavelet based index. For each of the used statistics, time points of local extrema were found and for each pair of time sequences of proton flux statistics and earthquakes with a magnitude of at least 6.5 in sliding time windows, the "advance measures" of each time sequence relative to the other were estimated using a model of the intensity of interacting point processes. The difference between the "direct" measure of the advance of time points of local extrema of proton flux statistics relative to the time moments of earthquakes and the "inverse" measure of the advance was calculated. The maximum proportion of the intensity of seismic events for which the proton flux is a trigger is estimated as 0.28 for using the points of the local minima of the singularities spectrum support width.

Abstract: The equation of time (EoT) tracks daily deviations in length between the solar day and the mean day. Since the length of the mean day remains constant throughout the year, the EoT must mirror daily fluctuations in the length of the solar day. Furthermore, if the Sun meridian declination (SMD) is dynamically linked to Earth’s rotational speed (ERS) the EoT must obey to oscillations in ERS. This document examines the position, velocity, acceleration, and net drive of the mean-time Sun within a solar sundial noon analemma considering both its vertical and horizontal dimensions: the SMD and the EoT. Evidence supports that ERS decreases monotonically along two trans-equinoctial analemmatic phases in which the net drives of the EoT and SMD become coordi-nated (either both accelerating or both decelerating) within the SMD interval of −16 to +19 arcdeg, centered at +3. Conversely, ERS increases monotonically along two trans-solstitial analemmatic phases in which the net drives of the EoT and SMD become opposed, outside the specified interval of SMD. The ERS reaches its minima and maxima at the troughs and crests of the EoT.

Abstract: The theory of orbital forcing as formulated by Milankovitch involves the mediation by the advance (retreat) of ice sheets and the resulting variations in terrestrial albedo. This approach poses a major problem, that of the period of glacial cycles which varies over time as happened during the Mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT). Here, we show that various hypotheses are called into question because of the finding of a second transition, the Early Quaternary Transition (EQT) resulting from the million-year period eccentricity parameter. We propose to complement the orbital forcing theory to explain both the MPT and the EQT by invoking the mediation of western boundary currents (WBCs) and the resulting variations in heat transfer from the low to the high latitudes. From observational and theoretical considerations, it appears that very long period Rossby waves winding around subtropical gyres, the so-called “gyral” Rossby waves (GRWs), are resonantly forced in subharmonic modes from variations in solar irradiance resulting from the solar and orbital cycles. Two mutually reinforcing positive feedbacks of the climate response to orbital forcing have been evidenced, namely the change in the albedo resulting from the cyclic growth and retreat of ice sheets in accordance with the standard Milankovitch theory, and the modulation of the velocity of the WBCs of subtropical gyres. Due to the inherited resonance properties of GRWs, the response of the climate system to orbital forcing is sensitive to small changes in the forcing periods. For both the MPT and the EQT, the transition occurred when the forcing period merged with one of the natural periods of the climate system. The MPT occurred 1.25 Ma ago when the dominant period shifted from 41 ka to 98 ka, with both periods corresponding to changes in the Earth's obliquity and eccentricity. The EQT occurred 2.38 Ma ago when the dominant period shifted from 408 ka to 786 ka, with both periods corresponding to changes in the Earth's eccentricity. By providing new information, the aim of this article is essentially to spark new debates around a problem that has been pending since the discovery of glacial-interglacial cycles, where many hypotheses have been put forward without, however, fully answering all our questions.