Ionospheric Response to the Geomagnetic Storm of November 12-14, 2025, Based on Multiparameter Analysis of Data from the LAERT Topside Sounder

As Akasofu noted, no two geomagnetic storms are identical, yet the storm that occurred between November 12 and 14, 2025, stands out as an exceptional phenomenon. Its impact was evident across multiple layers of the ionosphere and numerous parameters, making it essential to conduct a comprehensive multi-parameter analysis of this event. Such an analysis relied upon data from the four LAERT topside sounders mounted aboard the recently-launched Ionosfera-M satellites. Global ionospheric dynamics was thoroughly examined during the storm period, particularly focusing on the polar and auroral zones, along with the equatorial anomaly region. Notable features included sharp electron density gradients, widespread F-layer disturbances, and the formation of giant plasma bubbles. These elements collectively contributed to the dynamic picture of the ionospheric storm captured through multi-parameter measurements by the LAERT sounders.