Biology and Life Sciences

Abstract: Tree spacing significantly influences its morphology, productivity, and biomass accumulation. The objective of this study was to understand factors determining above ground biomass accumulation of selected focal trees in Awuria forest. Two the most dominant tree species were selected as focal trees. Species name, neighbor tree distance from focal tree, crown diameter, and DBH of focal and the four nearest neighbor tree species were recorded during data collection. The biomass of each focal tree was estimated using Chave et. al. (2014) allometric equations. Mean distance, neighbor density index, and the mean DBH of neighbor trees were determined through descriptive statistical analysis. The competition index was analyzed using Hegyi’s competition index formula. Generalized additive model was used to fit above ground biomass of the focal tree. Competition index, mean neighbor distance, and mean neighbor tree DBH were fitted as independent variables in GAM model to determine their biomass prediction potential. The optimum tree spacing was determined for each focal tree species. Competition index and mean neighbor DBH showed strong potential to determine above ground biomass of the selected focal trees. The optimum tree spacing for A. falcatus and J. procera were 1 and 1.8 meters, respectively.

Abstract: Ceiba spp. are native Amazonian forest trees of ecological and economic importance; however, genetic information on this genus remains limited. Genomic approaches such as genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) require high-quality DNA, which can be challenging to obtain from leaf tissue. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a protocol for extracting high-quality genomic DNA from silica gel–preserved leaves of Ceiba spp. collected in the Loreto, Ucayali, and Madre de Dios regions of the Peruvian Amazon. Genomic DNA was extracted from 20 samples using a modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) protocol incorporating a sorbitol-buffer prewash. DNA quantity and quality were assessed by microvolume spectrophotometry and Qubit fluorometry. A260/A280 ratios ranged from 1.70 to 1.99 (mean, 1.84), while spectrophotometric DNA concentrations ranged from 220.8 to 1294.1 ng/µL (mean, 696.5 ng/µL). Qubit measurements indicated detectable double-stranded DNA in all samples, although half of the readings (10/20) exceeded the upper limit of the assay range used. DNA suitability for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was assessed by amplifying the rbcL gene with universal primers, yielding amplification products in all 20 samples. The protocol yielded genomic DNA with quality characteristics compatible with downstream molecular applications and may support future GBS studies, subject to additional validation.

Abstract: Tazekka National Park, located in the northern Middle Atlas of Morocco, is an important area for biodiversity conservation. In this context, orchids represent an indicator group for assessing plant diversity and in situ conservation. This study aims to characterize the taxonomic diversity and geographical distribution of orchids across different habitats within the study area, while examining the main environmental factors and pressures that may influence their in situ conservation. Targeted samplings were conducted between March and July 2026, resulting in 134 vegetation samplings, 71 of which recorded the presence of orchids. A total of 15 taxa belonging to nine genera were recorded, comprising 1,017 individuals. Holm oak forests were identified as the most favorable habitats for orchids, with high concentrations of individuals in wetlands. However, orchids are threatened by wildfires, grazing, wetland drainage, and/or water abstraction. These findings highlight the need to integrate orchids conservation into a broader framework for sustainable habitat management. Priority measures include protecting wetland habitats, reducing anthropogenic disturbances, preventing wildfires, and regularly monitoring orchid populations. Such measures could help strengthen the resilience of forest ecosystems in Tazekka National Park while supporting biodiversity conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources.

Abstract: Understanding the organization of forest understory communities is essential for deciphering ecosystem assembly mechanisms. This study evaluates understory plant communities through an integrated characterization of species diversity, taxonomic distinctness, and the vertical structure of plant height. Sampling was conducted across 17 plots (10 subplots each), where flora was inventoried and plant heights were measured. Based on these data, ten diversity and functional-structural indices were calculated, and community variability was assessed via multivariate analyses. Results show that species diversity is strongly associated with abundance evenness, whereas total abundance and species richness exhibit independent variation, playing no role in the spatial differentiation of communities. Taxonomic distinctness revealed a broad taxonomic spectrum (species from phylogenetically distant families and orders) and pronounced heterogeneity, with these indices being independent of species diversity. Plant height structure varies considerably, ranging from monotypic communities dominated by Carex pilosa to highly heterogeneous associations where low vernal species, tall megaforbs, and natural regeneration co-occur. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that PA1 (52.91%) defines the species diversity, evenness, and vertical structure gradient, while PA2 (18.93%) indicates an independent taxonomic and phylogenetic gradient, providing a robust perspective on understory complexity.

Abstract: One of the main causes of common ash decline is the impact of heavy metals and salts accumulated in the soil. Furthermore, harmful chemical compounds contribute to the development of abnormalities in the morphogenesis of plant cells. Studies in natural conditions (in vivo) were conducted to select common ash populations with the highest resistance to salts (NaCl) at varying concentrations and heavy metals such as zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr). The studies were conducted to facilitate the precise and rapid assessment of the harmful substances impact on the plants health from a given population. Saplings from three populations originating from different geographical and climatic regions in southern and southeastern Poland. To ensure the full multidimensionality of the studies, experiments were also conducted under controlled laboratory conditions (in vitro). The in vitro seedlings grown under sterile conditions, served as a reference pattern with the best physiological. The in vitro plants were used for comparison with saplings grown in vivo. To determine the effect of selected abiotic factors on the saplings, measurements were taken of chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), the maximum efficiency of the water-splitting complex on the donor side of PSII (Fv/Fo), and the time to reach maximum chlorophyll fluorescence (Tfm) for both in vivo and in vitro plants. The studies showed that the values of the parameters studied varied depending on the geographical origin of the studied populations. The analyses of the Fv/Fm and Fv/Fo parameters of individual ash populations showed that the in vivo saplings population from southeastern Poland had the lowest resistance to Zn and Cd. In turn, Zn was the compound that caused the greatest disruptions in Fv/Fm and Fv/Fo functioning in in vivo saplings across all the studied populations. The analysis of the Tfm parameter showed that all toxic substances significantly affected the development of disturbances in the photosynthetic system of all saplings populations examined. The obtained results will help foresters in breeding healthy and resistant saplings and increasing the species population using both in vivo and in vitro methods, taking into account the influence of climate on resistance and the development of adaptive capacity of common ash saplings to the effects of soil contamination.

Abstract: Fallen wood is widely recognized as a critical micro-habitat for forest regeneration, yet how its facilitative role varies across ontogenetic stages and what constraints govern its spatial effectiveness throughout the tree life cycle remain poorly understood. This study investigated the spatial associations between Picea schrenkiana populations and fallen wood across four ontogenetic stages in a 6-hm² permanent plot in the West Tianshan Mountains, China. Our results revealed that fallen wood serves as an irreplaceable regeneration substrate throughout the entire life history: 99.6% of seedlings were established on fallen wood, and this dependency remained remarkably high (>78%) even at the adult stage. Spatial point pattern analyses demonstrated stage-specific shifts in tree-fallen wood associations: strong positive correlations at the seedling stage, significant negative correlations at the sapling stage driven by light limitation, multiscale fluctuating associations at the sub-adult stage, and positive correlations at the adult stage—indicating a functional transition from micro-habitat sheltering to historical legacy. Furthermore, after accounting for environmental heterogeneity using heterogeneous Poisson process models, we identified an environmental action scale (EAS) that expanded systematically with ontogeny: from 3.94 m for seedlings to 4.3–8.61 m for saplings, and to approximately 16 m for both sub-adults and adults, reflecting a cascading control mechanism in which local environmental filters and fallen wood micro-habitat interact across ontogenetic stages, driving enhanced physiological tolerance and crown expansion that increase the EAS and ultimately shape population spatial patterns. Notably, EAS exhibited a strict proportional scaling relationship with maximum crown diameter (R² = 0.9839), revealing that population spatial structure is intrinsically constrained by species-specific morphological conservatism. These findings advance our understanding of fallen wood dynamics beyond early recruitment and provide a mechanistic framework for assessing regeneration resilience in montane coniferous forests under climate change.

Abstract: Toxicodendron vernicifluum is an economically unique lacquer-producing tree en-demic to East Asia; propagation bottlenecks severely restrict elite clone industrializa-tion. This review systematically synthesizes 20 years of domestic and international lit-erature on seed propagation, root cutting, stem cutting, grafting, and tissue culture of lacquer tree, compares technical performance among China, Japan, Vietnam, and Med-iterranean Rhus species, and quantitatively summarizes germination/rooting rates across protocols. Sexual propagation suffers from seed deep dormancy and progeny segregation; conventional asexual propagation has low rooting efficiency; tissue culture faces high cost and browning obstacles; molecular regulatory mechanisms remain poorly characterized. We propose an integrated breeding framework combining mo-lecular mechanism dissection, low-cost vegetative propagation optimization, and standardized seedling production. Future directions including multi-omics analysis, gene-edited easy-rooting germplasm, and bioreactor micropropagation are highlighted to support large-scale elite seedling cultivation in Qinba Mountain regions.

Abstract: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus combines strong locomotory capacity with high stress tolerance, and the coordinated action of these two traits underpins its global invasion and dispersal. Yet the molecular mechanisms coupling locomotion to stress tolerance remain poorly understood. Here, we focused on the JIII dispersal-stage juveniles, a life-history stage that simultaneously demands high locomotory output and robust stress resistance. Using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), and random forest machine learning, we systematically screened for hub genes that may jointly regulate locomotion and stress tolerance, and then functionally validated the candidate target by RNA interference (RNAi). The gene encoding the β subunit of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHB) was identified as the core candidate target, positioned at the metabolic hub linking glycolysis to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Silencing of BxPDHB significantly increased pyruvate content (~4.61-fold), markedly reduced ATP levels (~16.91% decrease), drastically decreased head-swing frequency (~50.00% reduction), significantly elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels (~4.26-fold), and decreased survival rate (~26.02% reduction), producing a cascade of substrate accumulation, energy deficiency, impaired locomotion, and exacerbated oxidative stress. These results indicate that PDHB, by regulating the energy output of aerobic respiration, simultaneously affects locomotory behavior and antioxidant defense, functioning as a key node linking energy metabolism, locomotion, and oxidative stress. This study reveals the hub role of a core energy-metabolism enzyme in the coordinated regulation of locomotion and stress tolerance in B. xylophilus, providing new molecular evidence for understanding its dispersal adaptability. Moreover, as a node that maintains basal energy metabolism across multiple active life stages, PDHB represents a promising candidate molecular target for the development of RNA-based biopesticides delivered via trunk injection or nanocarrier-mediated approaches, with potential application value for the green control of pine wilt disease.

Abstract: Drought events are expected to induce both immediate and delayed effects on tree functioning, yet the persistence and dynamics of these legacy effects remain poorly understood. In an experimental set-up, European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) saplings have been subjected to two consecutive water-withholding treatments during the 2022 growing season, in a factorial design, resulting in five drought severity categories. We monitored these categories over the following three years to assess drought legacy effects on phenology and growth. In the first post-drought year, bud burst proceeded more slowly in all drought categories, with the plants exposed to severe summer drought displaying the longest duration. No to minor differences between drought categories and control plants were observed in timing of autumn leaf senescence in the first post-drought year and in the following bud burst, suggesting recovery in these phenological responses. Unexpectedly, differences re-emerged in autumn leaf senescence in the second post-drought year, when all drought categories displayed delayed senescence. This differentiation persisted into the following spring, with delayed bud burst in four drought categories, and two severe spring-drought categories maintaining delayed senescence in the third post-drought year. Diameter and height growth were strongly reduced in the first year following drought. Although growth differences largely disappeared in the second post-drought year, two severe summer-drought categories exhibited enhanced diameter growth in the third year, indicating compensatory growth. Together, these results demonstrate that drought legacy effects in F. sylvatica are dynamically expressed over multiple years, and that such temporal variability complicates predictions of long-term forest responses to increasingly frequent episodic drought events under climate change.

Abstract: Forests are major terrestrial carbon sinks, but the relative effects of ecological zones, tree species, stand structure, and site quality on carbon sequestration capacity (CSC) and net ecosystem production (NEP) remain insufficiently quantified at national scales. We integrated MODIS MOD17A3HGF net primary production data for 2000–2023 with ecozone-specific heterotrophic respiration coefficients and Türkiye’s national forest inventory comprising 2,446,889 stand polygons. Welch’s ANOVA, Games–Howell tests, Hedges’ g, Spearman correlations, and path analysis were used to quantify the effects of ecological zone, tree species, canopy closure, site index, and stand development class. Ecological zone was the strongest driver of CSC (η²ₚ = 0.3154) and NEP (η²ₚ = 0.2724), followed by tree species, canopy closure, site index, and stand development class. Euxine–Colchic broadleaf forests had the highest mean CSC (9.001 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) and NEP (4.801 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹), whereas East Anatolian broadleaf forests showed negative mean NEP. Relative humidity was the strongest continuous correlate of CSC (ρ = 0.732) and NEP (ρ = 0.695). Path analysis indicated that temperature influenced forest carbon functioning mainly through moisture-mediated indirect effects. These findings support ecozone- and structure-sensitive national carbon accounting, monitoring, management, and MRV frameworks for Türkiye’s heterogeneous forests.

Abstract: Rattans are important non-timber forest products that contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many rural communities across tropical Asia and Africa. However, increasing pressures from overexploitation and deforestation threaten the sustainability of these resources. Conventional field inventories are often labour-intensive and limited in spatial coverage, creating the need for more efficient monitoring approaches. This study evaluated the potential of drone imagery for detecting and inventorying rattan populations in the Hein agroforest located in the South-East Côte d’Ivoire, in tropical West Africa. Four plots containing native rattans were surveyed using both conventional ground inventories and drone-based image analysis. UAV images were processed into orthomosaics using Agisoft Metashape Pro and visually interpreted in QGIS through a grid-based approach. Density estimates obtained from both methods were compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, while their relationship and agreement were assessed using Spearman correlation and Bland–Altman analysis, respectively. Five rattan species were identified at the species level within the study area. Results showed a significant difference between ground and drone-derived density estimates (V = 153, p < 0.001), with the drone method generally underestimating densities (mean bias = −25.22 ramets/ha). Nevertheless, a strong positive correlation was observed between methods (ρ = 0.762, p < 0.001). These findings highlight the potential of UAV imagery as a complementary tool for sustainable rattan monitoring and management.

Abstract: Residual tree damage is an unavoidable consequence of thinning operations and may affect future stand quality, tree health, and timber value. Despite the increasing use of mechanized harvesting systems in broadleaved forests, limited information is available on the factors controlling damage occurrence under different stand conditions. This study aimed to quantify residual tree damage following mechanized thinning, identify the main determinants of damage occurrence, and develop a model describing damage probability in broadleaved stands. The study was carried out at six locations in five European countries representing four broadleaved tree species: European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), oak (Quercus L.), birch (Betula L.), and European aspen (Populus tremula L.). A total of 288 sample plots were established, and 4,576 trees were inventoried. Thinning operations were performed using two harvesters: HSM 405H and UTC 150 - 6LS, both equipped with a CTL 40 HW harvesting head, designed for broadleaved tree species. Residual tree damage was assessed immediately after harvesting and analysed using logistic regression models. Overall, 271 out of 3,230 residual trees were with damage, corresponding to a damage rate of 8.4%. No significant differences in damage occurrence were found between the two experienced harvester operators. In contrast, bark thickness and distance from the strip road were identified as the only significant predictors of residual tree damage probability. Thin-barked stands (beech) exhibited significantly higher damage rates (11.8%) than thick-barked stands (oak, birch, and aspen; 5.7%). The developed logistic model provides a practical tool for estimating residual tree damage probability and may support harvesting planning and stand protection.

Abstract: Wildfire is a dominant disturbance in Mediterranean cork oak (Quercus suber) ecosystems, yet its medium-term consequences for insect assemblages remain poorly documented in North Africa. We compared burnt and unburnt stands in four suberaies of north-eastern Algeria (Djebel El Goufi/Lemdjalba, El Maktoua, Oued Agouf and Ain Fegoune) during two consecutive post-fire years (2015 and 2016). Across 16 station-year units, 402 insect species were recorded. Unburnt stands harboured 364 species against 111 in burnt stands, and 291 species were exclusive to unburnt stands. Sorensen similarity between burnt and unburnt stands was consistently low (mean 18.4% in 2015 and 10.8% in 2016), whereas unburnt stands remained comparatively stable between years (mean 61.9%) and burnt stands did not (22.5%). Principal component analysis of Hellinger-transformed abundances separated burnt from unburnt units along PC1, and PERMANOVA confirmed a significant effect of fire history (R2 = 0.25, p = 0.0001; ANOSIM R = 0.72, p < 0.001) with no significant year or interaction effect. UpSet and chord diagrams showed that species overlap was concentrated within, rather than between, fire-history classes, with only one to two species shared by all eight stations. Two years after fire, assemblages had not begun to converge towards the unburnt reference, indicating slow entomofaunal resilience and supporting the retention of unburnt refuges in post-fire management.

Abstract: Romania's forest sector has undergone significant transformation over the past two decades, with certification emerging as a key instrument for improving transparency, ecological safeguards and market access. This study examines the current state of forest certification in Romania within broader European trends toward sustainable forest management. Using national statistics, policy documents and comparative European data, the analysis evaluates the ecological, economic and social benefits of certification and the structural barriers limiting its adoption, especially among private and communal owners. Results show that certification has improved biodiversity protection, monitoring and institutional accountability, while facilitating access to international markets. A comparative analysis of 18 European countries, controlling for national income and EU accession timing, shows that Romania's certification coverage lags roughly 16 percentage points behind the level predicted by its income and accession cohort, comparable to gaps in wealthier Western European economies, indicating structural rather than economic barriers. Persistent challenges, including fragmented ownership, uneven administrative capacity and infrastructure gaps, continue to restrict implementation. The study concludes that Romania is progressing toward European models of sustainable forest management, but further convergence requires coherent policies, stronger institutional capacity and targeted support for small forest owners, in line with the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development.

Abstract: The expansion of sustainable timber harvesting on peatland forests is important for forest owners, contractors, and the forest industry. This study investigated the effects of site-specific conditions on summer-time harvesting operations and modeled the influence of a light nine-ton forwarder on rut formation. Three logistic mixed-effects models predicted peat surface disturbance (ROC = 0.60, 0.63, and 0.67), while a linear mixed model predicted rut depth when rutting occurred (R² = 0.35). Rut formation was associated with the number of machine passes, cumulative load, groundwater table depth, peat layer thickness, and interactions between stand and harvesting variables. The results indicate that timber can be successfully forwarded from peatlands with limited bearing capacity when operations are adapted to local site conditions. The findings highlight the importance of road-network planning, load management, and operator decision-making in reducing rut formation. This modeling approach also supports operator training, thereby contributing to more sustainable timber harvesting on low-bearing-capacity sites.

Abstract: (1) Background: As a critical landscape node in urban roads, the pedestrian refuge island is a key challenge for plant configuration; (2) Methods: This study investigated plant applications on pedestrian refuge islands in spring and winter, using the NCS color system and diversity indices to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of their plant communities; (3) Results: A survey of 17 traffic islands identified 53 plant species, comprising 27 in the herb layer, 15 shrubs, 8 trees, and 3 vines. For color diversity, the respective layers had 41, 29, 14, and 6 standard colors. Leaf color values showed seasonal variation: warm-toned in spring and cool-toned in winter. Quantitative characteristics and α-diversity indices of the plant community decreased progressively from the herb layer through the shrub layer to the arbor layer. The community’s Whittaker index (6.527) was lower than the mean species richness (7.71), while the Jaccard similarity coefficient decreased as the distance between quadrats increased; (4) Conclusions: Urban pedestrian refuge islands formed a vegetation landscape characterized by vibrant coloration and distinct seasonal dynamics by enhancing horticultural plant diversity. These patterns of diversity were significantly shaped by human disturbance and urbanization.

Abstract: Severe windthrow events can create highly favorable conditions for bark beetle outbreaks by generating large quantities of weakened breeding material. This study investigated the population response of the Mediterranean pine engraver, Orthotomicus erosus Wollaston, following a microburst windstorm that struck Marjan Forest Park, an urban Mediterranean Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) forest in Split, Croatia, in July 2025. Approximately 2,000 m3 of damaged timber remained in the forest until February 2026, enabling assessment of colonization dynamics and outbreak development. Field inspections, laboratory analyses, and pheromone trap monitoring were conducted between July 2025 and April 2026. Colonization of windthrown material began within two weeks after the disturbance, and infestation rates reached 94% of examined logs by December 2025. Most infested logs (86%) already contained emergence holes, indicating successful completion of beetle development. Pheromone traps captured a total of 131,588 individuals, with more than 88% recorded during spring 2026 and a pronounced peak occurring on 8 April 2026. The appearance of newly attacked standing trees in spring 2026 confirmed rapid population expansion from fallen material to living hosts. Results demonstrate the exceptional outbreak potential of O. erosus following extreme climatic disturbances and emphasize the importance of rapid sanitation measures and continuous monitoring in Mediterranean pine forests under climate change conditions. Delayed salvage logging after severe windthrow can rapidly trigger outbreak development of O. erosus.

Abstract:

Abies koreana Wilson (Korean fir) and Abies nephrolepis (Trautv. Ex Maxim.) Maxim. (Khingan fir) are ecologically and economically significant coniferous species in East Asia. However, morphological similarities and hybridization complicate species identification, affecting conservation, forestry management, and commercial activities. Here, we developed a species-specific DNA marker using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the mitochondrial nad5 intron 1 region to discriminate between A. koreana and A. nephrolepis. In particular, PCR amplification and sequencing analyses of candidate drought and heat stress-responsive genes as well as mitochondrial nad5 intron 1 and nad5 intron 4 revealed a species-specific T-to-G substitution in nad5 intron 1. Allele-specific primers were designed, and competitive allele-specific labeled light emission technology was employed for SNP detection. The primers were validated using real-time PCR, achieving high specificity and reliability. Overall, the molecular diagnostic tool offers a practical solution for accurate species identification, aiding conservation efforts and sustainable resource management.

Abstract: Accurately quantifying aboveground biomass (AGB) in tropical forest enrichment plantations remains challenging, particularly in managed regenerating stands where tree crown architecture, size structure, and species composition differ from the datasets used to calibrate classical allometric equations. Here, we assess whether AGB in tropical forest enrichment plantations can be estimated more accurately by combining tree-specific woody volume reconstructed from mobile laser scanning (MLS) with an explicit foliar-biomass component. We combined destructive measurements from 83 trees with high-resolution MLS point clouds to quantify biomass components, calibrate leaf-mass models, and assess the contribution of foliage to total AGB. Stems accounted for most of the biomass (65%), whereas leaves contributed only 3% on average. Among the models tested, Model 3, which included DBH, projected crown area, and wood density, showed the best performance (R² = 54.4%; RMSE = 2.43 kg). The main gain relative to regional (-20.4%) and pantropical (-25.6%) allometric equations came from the use of MLS-derived woody volume combined with species wood density, whereas the inclusion of predicted leaf biomass provided a moderate additional correction to the remaining bias. These results highlight the importance of canopy structure for biomass estimation in enrichment plantations and managed regenerating stands and support the use of LiDAR data as a robust alternative for AGB assessment in this context.

Abstract: Because wood anatomical traits and tree-ring features vary with species and climatic regime, cellular-scale measurements complement ring-width chronologies and help with understanding how forests may respond to future environmental change. We developed anatomical chronologies spanning the 1900-2019 period from multi-century old yellow pines (Pinus jeffreyi Balf. and P. ponderosa P & C Laws.) at four sites surrounding the Tahoe Basin of the Sierra Nevada, at the border between Nevada and California, USA. Measurements of earlywood and latewood traits included lumen area, lumen length, lumen width, wall length, wall-to-lumen length ratio, and conductive area. Climate sensitivity was estimated by bootstrapped response functions with precipitation and temperature (monthly and seasonal) from the Global Historical Climate Network interpolated to the site locations. Moisture emerged as the primary control on anatomical trait expression, as significant coefficients involved precipitation rather than temperature. Earlywood lumen size and conductive capacity were associated with late-winter through spring moisture, while cellular wall characteristics were connected with conditions during the growing season. Overall, our study provided new insights into the potential impacts of climatic changes on woody species of remarkable size and longevity in an area that is prized for its natural beauty and scenic mountain landscapes.