Abstract: The risk of wildfires is increasing due to high temperatures and dry weather conditions caused by climate change. Outbreaks and spread of wildfires are usually conditioned by weather, topography, and forest stand characteristics. In the Republic of Korea (hereafter ROK), most wildfires are caused by anthropogenic factors rather than by natural factors. However, the current forest fire forecasting system being operated in ROK does not account for anthropogenic factors. To analyze the impact of human factors, along with physical factors, on wildfire occurrence, a binary logistic regression model was constructed with data for the Gangwon and Gyeongbuk provinces from January 2022 to August 2025. The dependent variable was defined as the occurrence of a wildfire, while the independent variables comprised meteorological, seasonal, stand, and anthropogenic factors. To address multicollinearity, variables with high correlation coefficients were excluded from the independent variables, which were selected by three estimating approaches including logistic regression and two machine learning techniques (namely, Random Forest and XGBoost). With machine learning, the variables with high feature importance were identified. The explanatory power of the logistic regression analysis with independent variables selected by the machine learning models was about 1.3 times higher than the model using variables adjusted solely for multicollinearity. The results of logistic regression analysis revealed that weather and coniferous forests are the most important factors fostering wildfires, while the mean stand age was the most significant factor in hindering wildfires. Among the anthropogenic factors, forest road density acted as a suppressor of wildfire spread rather than a promoter of occurrence. Conversely, trail density tends to increase the risk of wildfire occurrence. Among forest management activities, artificial forests could boost forest fires, although this remains uncertain. These findings suggest that preventing wildfires requires a paradigm shift in forest resource management policies, including extending the rotation age of forests and the conversion of coniferous forests to broadleaf forests. Meanwhile, it also indicates the need to restrict the expansion of hiking trails and improve regulations regarding hiker access to prevent wildfires.

Abstract: Mangrove forests in northern Mozambique were impacted by human and natural pressures that caused channel blockage, permanent flooding, and tree die back. To address the issue, hydrological restoration was carried out in August 2024, excavating 6.88 km of canals with impact in 38 ha of degraded mangrove. This study reports on the monitoring results carried out 4 and 10 months later. Site salinity approached optimal levels for mangrove growth by dropping 56% in high salinity areas, and increasing above 100% in freshwater invaded areas. The intervention also homogenized the previously distinct upper, middle and lower zones (Dunn Post-Hoc: p > 0.05). Moreover, seedling density increased from 57.1±44.1 to 4864±1778.6 seedlings/ha; and regenerating species went increase in number (1 to 3 in middle zone; and 0 to 3 in lower zone). More regenerating classes (63:1:1 in upper, 11:1:0 in middle and 6:1:0 in lower) and die back of competing species Juncus kraussii and Cyperus articulates was also recorded. These changes result from the improved tidal flow and general habitat conditions in the restored site. This restoration offers a model for scaling restoration efforts across the region, where ecological restoration remains underrepresented in many mangrove restoration initiatives.

Abstract: Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) is a key European forest species, widely managed in coppice systems for timber production. Despite its ecological and socio-economic relevance, regional-scale genetic structure in coppice stands and its potential application to timber traceability remain underexplored. This study aimed (i) to assess genetic diversity and population structure in four coppice chestnut stands of the Lazio region using 12 nuclear simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci, and (ii) to evaluate the feasibility of developing an SSR-based framework for timber origin verification at regional and Mediterranean scales. A total of 160 trees from four Lazio populations were genotyped and analyzed together with published SSR data from eight European populations (Spain, Piedmont, Sicily, Greece, and Turkey). Genetic diversity indices revealed high intra-population variability (mean Na = 9.17; mean He = 0.738; mean PIC = 0.737), with most genetic variation partitioned within populations (96% by AMOVA) and moderate differentiation among stands (Fst = 0.038). Bayesian clustering indicated substantial admixture, reflecting extensive gene flow and long-term connectivity typical of coppice systems. Comparative analysis using five shared SSR loci across 12 populations resolved three main phylogeographic gene pools corresponding to Iberian, Central Italian, and Eastern Mediterranean groups. To enable timber traceability, a modified CTAB–PEG DNA extraction protocol was optimized for dried wood material collected from four sawmills (Lazio, Calabria, and France). Reliable multilocus genotypes were obtained from 40 timber samples using seven highly polymorphic SSR loci. Timber assignment was conducted through an integrated analytical approach combining Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (DAPC), Bayesian clustering (STRUCTURE), and likelihood-based exclusion testing (GDA_NT 2021). At the regional scale, timber from Lazio sawmills was consistently assigned to the corresponding reference populations with assignment scores of 1.000 and negligible exclusion probabilities. At the Mediterranean scale, timber samples were correctly affiliated with broader phylogeographic clusters, although fine-scale discrimination was limited by regional genetic homogeneity and reference coverage. These findings demonstrate that Lazio coppice stands maintain high genetic diversity and confirm the technical feasibility of SSR-based macro-regional timber traceability in C. sativa. While further marker expansion and broader geographic sampling are required for operational implementation, the integrated framework developed here provides a robust basis for genetic origin verification, supporting sustainable forest management and transparent timber supply chains.

Abstract: The research is an exploration of how livelihood capital endowments affect the growth of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) in rural communities at the Koyten Dag part of Turkmenistan. The study is based on the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and grounded by the Capability Approach, Institutional Theory, and Human Capital Theory which are considered to have a strong influence on NWFP development within the exclusive post-Soviet socio-ecological environment. The study also utilizes annual periods of time series data between 2001 and 2024 and applies the ARDL bounds testing method to test the short and long-run associations among livelihood assets and NWFP production. The results verify the high degree of long-run cointegrating, showing that the five capitals have a great impact through which they affect the development of NWFP in a positive way. Emerging as the ultimate drivers both in the short and long-term, education, skills, health, and digital connectivity become especially important. Financial and social capitals reflect the long-run contribution foundations and natural capital shows the significance of the availability of ecological resources and governance systems. The correction error term is a sign of a quick rate of adjustment meaning that the system of livelihoods is robust and can be brought back to equilibrium within a short duration of time in case of temporary shocks. Stability in results is checked by robustness tests conducted by FMOLS and DOLS. The paper has significant theoretical and practical implications such as that the policies have to be integrative and at the same time enhance human capabilities, digital infrastructure, institutional quality, and resource governance. This knowledge can be used to promote the sustainable development of rural areas and an efficiency approach to the NWFP sector in Turkmenistan.

Abstract: Forests are increasingly exposed to interacting biotic and abiotic stressors, including invasive insects, emerging pathogens, and climate-driven disturbances. Understanding how trees resist or tolerate these stressors is therefore essential for sustaining forest health and ecosystem services. This review synthesizes current knowledge on forest resistance to insects and pathogens, revisiting classical concepts of resistance, tolerance, and resilience and examining how they operate under contemporary environmental change. We integrate insights from plant–insect–pathogen interactions, phenological dynamics, and multitrophic ecological processes to develop a conceptual framework describing how host traits, environmental conditions, and biotic antagonists jointly determine resistance outcomes. European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is used as a model system to illustrate these processes in the context of two major invasive threats: ash dieback caused by Hymenoscyphus fraxineus and the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). Evidence from genetic, physiological, and chemical studies indicates that resistance in ash is polygenic and often expressed as reduced susceptibility or tolerance rather than complete immunity. Recent findings further suggest the existence of cross-resistance mechanisms that may simultaneously influence responses to fungal pathogens and insect pests. Climate change, environmental stress, and host-associated microbiomes may further modify these interactions and shape long-term resistance dynamics. Finally, we discuss implications for resistance breeding and adaptive forest management, emphasizing the importance of maintaining genetic diversity and ecosystem heterogeneity to enhance forest resilience under accelerating global change.

Abstract: Accurately quantifying aboveground biomass (AGB) in tropical forests remains challenging, particularly in regenerating stands where tree crown architecture, size structure, and species composition strongly diverge from those used to calibrate classical allometric equations. Here, we evaluate whether leaf biomass typically ignored in LiDAR workflows can be predicted and improve AGB estimation derived from LiDAR data. We combined destructive measurements on 83 trees with high-resolution Mobile LiDAR Scanner (MLS) point clouds to quantify biomass. We also calibrate leaf mass models and assess the contribution of foliar biomass to total AGB. Stems accounted for most biomass (65%), while leaves contributed only 3% on average. Among models tested, the model 3, integrating DBH, projected crown area and wood density showed the best adjustment (R² = 54.4%; RMSE = 2.43 kg). This model outperformed both regional (-20.4%) and pantropical (-25.6%) allometric equations. This work highlights the importance of canopy features in forest carbon assessments and refines the use of LiDAR data as a robust alternative for estimates and monitoring AGB across tropical forests.

Abstract: Nondestructive assessment of wood quality in standing trees is increasingly essential for valuebased harvesting, precision forestry, and largescale monitoring. Yet most existing approaches rely on destructive sampling or plotscale measurements that cannot be feasibly extended across extensive forest areas. A major barrier to scalable assessment is the spatial misalignment between external structural measurements and internal woodquality responses, which introduces systematic bias when conventional regression methods are applied. We propose a generalized statistical framework called Regression based on Misaligned Covariates (RMC), that reconciles covariates and responses measured at separate spatial locations. By combining the Law of Total Expectation with kernelbased estimation of marginal relationships, RMC recovers heightdependent conditional means without requiring onetoone spatial correspondence. The framework is demonstrated using two physiologically contrasting conifers, eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and red pine (Pinus resinosa), using covariates that are directly measurable through nondestructive, remotesensingbased structural characterization. RMC produced smooth, biologically interpretable estimates of knot volume along the bole for both species, even when trained on small datasets and using only a single structural covariate in addition to height. The resulting cumulative knotvolume profiles captured speciesspecific differences in knot accumulation and aligned with known patterns of crown architecture and stem form. RMC provides a scalable, nondestructive pathway for predicting internal wood quality from external structural measurements, supporting preharvest planning, logsorting decisions, and longterm monitoring of stand development. Because the method is portable, parsimonious, and not speciesspecific, it offers a general solution for any ecological or remotesensing application involving misaligned covariates and responses, extending well beyond woodquality modelling.

Abstract: Plant species in secondary forests can significantly influence soil nutrients. We assessed how soil micronutrients (B, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn) and Al were affected by plant species in secondary forests at Masako Forest Reserve. Soil samples were collected in June 2022 and 2023 at three depths: 0–10 cm, 10-20 and 20-30 cm along five plant species. A com-pletely randomized design was used with 3 soil depths (SD) x 5 plant species (PS) replicated 4 times. Soil samples were air-dried, sieved 2 mm and sent to Brookside Laboratories (OH, USA) for analyses. Results showed that in 2022, Mn (p=0.0014) and Al (p=0.0216) were significantly affected by SD. Mn (18.30 mg/kg) concentrations were higher in 0-10 cm while Al (443.80 mg/kg) was concentrated in 20-30 cm depth. Boron, Fe, Mn, Zn and Al were all significantly affected by PS (p< 0.01). The soil under Musanga cercopoides had the highest concentrations of Mn, Cu (in magnitude), Zn and lowest in Al. Boron (0.50 mg/kg) and Fe (215.67 mg/kg) were highest in soils under Tricula Africana. As in 2022, Mn (p=0.0166) was also significantly affected by SD in 2023 with its highest concentration (5.45 mg/kg) in 0-10 cm. As for 2022, the soil under Tricula Africana had significantly higher concentrations of Fe (192.67 mg/kg) and Zinc (27.76 mg/kg). The 0-10 cm layer seems to significantly hold more nutrients as compared to deeper soil layers. Triculia africana seems to play a significant role in micronutrients cycling at Masaka Forest Reserve.

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of different application rates of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) from Morchella sextelata on soil properties and microbial communities in a moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) plantation. Three SMS rates (2.4, 4.7, and 9.4 kg·m⁻² ) were applied, and soil samples were collected at 6 and 12 months from two depths (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm). One year after application, topsoil total phosphorus (TP) increased 12–20 fold, while available phosphorus (AP) and potassium (AK) were significantly elevated. Soil pH initially decreased but partially recovered, whereas electrical conductivity (EC) continued to rise, indicating salt accumulation. Urease (UA) and sucrase (SA) activities increased 10–17 fold and 3–5 fold, respectively, while catalase (CAT) and acid phosphatase (ACP) were temporarily suppressed. SMS application significantly altered microbial community composition, with Acidobacteriota and Basidiomycota becoming more abundant. Correlation analysis identified pH, organic matter, AP, and UA as key factors linked to microbial changes. The medium application rate (4.7 kg·m⁻² ) provided the best balance between soil improvement and environmental risk. These findings demonstrate that M. sextelata SMS can effectively enhance soil fertility while modulating microbial communities, but salt accumulation and short-term acidification warrant attention.

Abstract: Forest, wild, and exotic fruits are integral yet often overlooked components of agricultural landscapes in East and Southern Africa. These “hidden harvests” contribute to food and nutrition security, livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience, but remain marginal in dominant food system narratives and policy frameworks. This study aims to systematically synthesise existing evidence on the roles of forest, wild, and exotic fruits within agricultural landscapes of Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Rwanda, with a focus on their nutritional, economic, environmental, and social contributions. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, drawing on peer-reviewed and selected grey literature published since 2000. Relevant studies were identified through major academic databases and screened using predefined eligibility criteria. The results indicate that fruits significantly enhance dietary diversity and micronutrient intake, provide seasonal food buffers during lean periods, and support income diversification, particularly for women and marginalised groups. Environmentally, fruit trees contribute to ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, and climate adaptation through agroforestry and landscape-based systems. However, their potential is constrained by governance challenges, tenure insecurity, weak value chains, and policy fragmentation. The study concludes that recognising forest, wild, and exotic fruits as integral components of multifunctional agricultural landscapes is essential for advancing resilient, nutrition-sensitive, and sustainable food systems in the region.

Abstract: Variation and comparison of annual cone and seed productions, and seed characteristics (number and percentage of filled seeds per cone) were examined for three consecutive years at three seed stand populations of Taurus cedar (Cedrus libani A. Rich.) with distinct structural characteristics. Fertility variation in cone and seed production was analyzed and discussed to inform for management practices of seed stands and for other silvicultural interventions. The analysis of variance showed the significant differences among populations and years, as well as among trees within a population and a year for both cone and seed production and seed characteristics. Population x year interactions were also significant (p<0.05), highlighting the importance of cone collecting stand and seed harvesting year. The parental balance curves showed that the cone production was much closer to equal contribution to the gamete gene pool than the production of filled seeds across years, suggesting that the number of cones is a better indicator of overall seed production. Fertility variation () in cones and filled seeds (1.10≤≤ 1.71 except 2.38 in a population and year) showed small deviation among seed stands and among years within a seed stand. Gene diversity of seed crops has increased through clustering populations and pooling years reaching values of 0.998 and 0.997, respectively.

Abstract: Due to climate change, seedling damage caused by drought stress is expected to increase in both afforestation sites and nurseries. Therefore, to ensure stable seedling production under high-temperature conditions and to cultivate seedlings with enhanced drought tolerance through hardening treatments, the development of an effective irrigation system is required. Conventional physiological methods for non-destructive drought detection, such as chlorophyll fluorescence and leaf temperature measurements, require expensive and manual operation, thereby limiting their real-time applicability in forest nurseries. This study evaluated the feasibility of using image-based leaf angle measurements for drought stress detection in Quercus acutissima seedlings. One-year-old seedlings were grown under two water regimes—well-watered (control; CT) and unwatered (drought; DT)—and physiological parameters, including chlorophyll fluorescence, vapor pressure deficit, and leaf angle, were measured. Statistical analyses (RMANOVA) revealed that changes in the leaf angle parameter (PMD–MD: difference between the previous measurement day and the current measurement day) exhibited temporal patterns similar to physiological responses to drought on day 6 (D6), but not earlier than physiological changes. Multiple regression models identified air temperature, soil moisture, Fm′, and VPD as the main factors influencing leaf angle variation. These findings demonstrate that leaf angle monitoring can serve as an effective surrogate indicator of physiological drought stress responses in forest nursery seedlings, with potential for integration into automated irrigation systems for drought hardening management, thus enabling enhanced real-time applicability over conventional methods constrained by costly equipment and manual handling.

Abstract: Results showed the presence of 425 species of macro fungi and 96 families in natural forest, Ascomycetes had 19 families and 41 species, 4 species are edible and 1 medicinal; the Basidiomycetes had 78 families and 384 species, and 50 species are edible, 6 medicinal, 65 toxic, 4 hallucinogenic and 3 bioluminescent. Regarding life forms Ascomycetes had 24 species saprotroph, 13 parasites and 1 mycorrhizal. Basidiomycetes had 229 saprotroph species, 119 mycorrhizal and 34 parasitic. Pure culture growth of 110 species was measured, saprotroph species grew 3.5 cm, mycorrhizal 0.7 cm and parasitic species 0.4 cm at 7 days from incubation. The Kruskall-Wallis analysis showed significant differences in the average growth of the species groups (p< 0.05). A pairwise analysis, after the Kruskall-Wallis, showed that growth of saprotrophs was significantly greater than mycorrhizal and parasitic species; the last two groups were not significantly different. Native edible strains of Pleurotus dejamour and Hericium erinaceus were grown and had statistically significant differences (P<0.05) for fruiting bodies production.

Abstract: Trees in urban environments provide essential ecosystem services, but root growth–pavement system conflicts often constrain tree longevity and degrade infrastructure performance. The study presents a conceptual model for green and grey infrastructure alignment to ensure tree longevity while maintaining pavement performance in the urban environment. Drawing on past research where roots were flattened when exposed to confining stresses greater than 0.35 MPa, we developed a series of finite element models in COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate root-induced stresses in concrete pavements under varying pavement thickness, base thickness, and root depth. Parametric analyses showed that an increase in root depth had the largest impact in reducing stress, followed by an increase in pavement thickness, then base thickness. Maximum single-root-induced stresses were approximately 0.55 MPa, below that of normal concrete flexural strength. From these results, design guidance is proposed for tree root accommodation and pavement in existing and new infrastructure, with emphasis on root growth enhancement, pavement durability, and cost-effectiveness measures.

Abstract:

Conducting a comprehensive study of the photosynthesis aspects of the most common tree species will allow us to select the most promising species for afforestation and assess the contribution of the main forest-forming species to the absorption of carbon dioxide. This study investigates the seasonal dynamics of photosynthetic activity in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles in the central region of European Russia during the 2024 growing season. The research aimed to determine the dependence of photosynthesis intensity, transpiration, and stomatal conductance on meteorological conditions, such as temperature and irradiance. Measurements were carried out using a portable gas exchange system and meteorological station data, covering the growing season from April to September. The photosynthetic activity was found to exhibit a bimodal dynamic with peaks in June (20.8 μmol/m²/s) and September (18.0 μmol/m²/s), while the minimum value was observed in July during a drought period. The analysis of the results suggests a high adaptability of Scots pine to stressful conditions, attributed to the "drought memory" effect and the xeromorphic structure of the needles. The obtained data help to identify optimal conditions for reforestation activities and underscore the significant role of pine forests in the carbon balance of ecosystems.

Abstract: The natural durability of wood, determined primarily by its chemistry, meets the growing demand for environmentally sustainable alternatives to toxic wood preserva-tives. This study investigated the relationship between heartwood chemical composi-tion and decay resistance among fifty-two (52) Pinus nigra Arn. clones from a clonal seed orchard in Greece. Quantitative 1H-NMR spectroscopy was employed to determine total acetone extractives (TAE), total stilbenes (TS), and total resin acids (TRA) in heartwood samples, while decay resistance was evaluated through standardized weight loss tests using Coniophora puteana (Schumach.) P. Karst. (1865) and Porodaedalea pini (Brot.) Murrill (1905). The heartwood exhibited exceptionally high extractive content (mean TAE = 304.15 mg/gdhw), with resin acids (68.26%) predominating over stilbenes (22.31%). Re-gression analysis showed that TAE and TRA were the strongest predictors of decay re-sistance, explaining 33% of the variance, while stilbenes exhibited weaker and more variable associations. Porodaedalea pini caused significantly higher mean weight loss (11.43%) than C. puteana (3.55%), indicating species-specific fungal aggressiveness. Among individual resin acids, abietic acid were the most influential contributors to decay resistance. The results demonstrate that resin acids have dominant role over stilbenes in determining the natural durability of P. nigra heartwood and could serve as effective biochemical markers for selective breeding.

Abstract: Over the last decade, bark beetle outbreaks have significantly impacted forests in Central Europe, causing extensive loss of forest cover. We evaluated the impact of partial deforestation in three mountain forest catchments in the Jeseníky Mountains, comparing them with the unaffected Červík catchment (Beskydy Mountains) and the severely affected Pekelský stream catchment (Czech-Moravian Highlands). Atmospheric deposition in the catchments was similar, with total element input driven primarily by precipitation volumes rather than ion concentrations. We did not observe the hypothesized increase in DOC and nitrogen export, although nitrate outflow was slightly higher than atmospheric input in two cases. Significant export of calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonates was driven mainly by the geology of the individual catchments. The limited impact of bark beetle outbreaks on DOC dynamics can be attributed to the relatively low proportion of clear-cut areas and the rapid development of ground vegetation on impacted sites.

Abstract:

Forests provide biodiversity to the planet and other forest ecosystem services – the es-sential benefits of humans from forests. The resilience of forest ecosystems and individual trees to stressors has always interested scientists and practitioners. Scientists have fo-cused on the mechanisms of tree resistance. Practitioners have sought ways to reduce forest productivity losses. This work aimed to review the modern knowledge regarding forest ecosystem resilience, forest health, tree resistance, mutual adaptations of plants and phytophagous insects, and breeding trees for disease resistance. As a case study, the resistance of European ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) to ash dieback and emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, 1888 (Coleoptera: Buprestidae): mechanisms, evidence, and future perspectives is presented. Breeding tree species for resistance to pests should play an important role in preventing their spread. Since each tree species is susceptible to some pests and resistant to others, to ensure maximum resilience, it is advisable to create mixed-age and multi-species stands, despite potential productivity losses.

Abstract: Social forestry plays a crucial role in Bangladesh by restoring degraded lands, alleviating pressure on natural forests, and enhancing rural livelihoods through community en-gagement. This study evaluated strip and woodlot plantations in Kamalganj Upazila of Sylhet Division, alongside co-management activities at Lawachara National Park, to as-sess their socioeconomic and ecological contributions. A structured survey of 32 benefi-ciaries and a discussion with the co-management committee were conducted to examine household characteristics, benefits received, challenges encountered, and local involve-ment in forest protection. Beneficiaries, mostly males aged 30–60 years, reported improved income, fuelwood access, and livelihood stability after participating in social forestry. Plantations were dominated by Acacia auriculiformis, Albizia procera, Chukrasia tabularis, and Melia azedarach, and respondents emphasized the need to incorporate more indigenous and multipurpose species. Co-management efforts contributed to a reduction in illegal ex-traction and enhanced community awareness, although issues such as manpower short-ages, limited training, and communication gaps between management groups persisted. These findings demonstrate that social forestry and co-management initiatives in Kamal-ganj Upazila provide meaningful socioeconomic benefits and advance forest conserva-tion, while highlighting the importance of species diversification, stronger institutional coordination, and expanded livelihood support to ensure long-term sustainability.

Abstract: The success of invasive species relies heavily on the production, dispersal and genetic composition of propagules. For range expanding species, breeding strategy and level of reproductive investment will strongly in-fluence their capacity to establish and invade new areas. A hermaphroditic lifestyle provides the advantage of increasing the number of seed bearing individuals within a population while a dioecious habit may enable more rapid adaptation to new environments, improve resource use efficiency, fecundity and dispersal. Pittosporum undulatum, a tree native to coastal areas of southeastern Australia, has many characteristics of an invasive species within and beyond its native range. A previous study detected a male bias within invasive populations, with a high proportion of fruit deriving from female-only trees, leading to recommendations the removal of ‘matriarch’ trees as a simple management technique. We expanded that study and investigated different breeding systems populations of P. undulatum by assessing tree density, gender, resource availability and fruit load of individuals in 14 populations sited along the spectrum from native to invasive populations. All populations were comprised of either females or hermaphrodites. No male-only trees observed within the study. More females produced more fruit than hermaphrodites, especially in native site. This could not be attributed to environmental differences between sites. These data support the current management practices of targeting the removal of females as a simple method for containing invasions given the benefits of reducing the workload and spreading limited management resource. Our work highlights the value in understanding the breeding strategy employed by focal invasive species as a means of developing improved and more targeted control methods.