Abstract: Frequent monitoring of fresh soil and plant properties in the same location and timepoint is now possible using real-time near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of vegetation cover and height on soil and plant nutrients across managed and unmanaged agricultural land in a temperate climate. A total of 803 soil and 803 fresh vegetation samples were collected between the years 2023 and 2024 from 125 different land parcels in the southwest of the UK, which were either managed for grazing and/or feed production or not managed for agricultural use. The land had a range of grass, crops, legume, herb and flower species, across temporary grass, arable and permanent grass areas. A linear mixed model was used to assess the effect of vegetation height (in cm) and cover (tonnes dry matter per hectare) on soil and plant nutrients. The results showed that the ratio of soil to plant organic matter (OM) reduced with increased vegetation height and cover. Plant dry matter (DM) digestibility, acid detergent fibre (ADF), water soluble carbohydrate and oil contents increased with vegetation height, and DM and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) decreased with vegetation height. Ratio of soil to plant OM reduced and ADF increased with increasing vegetation cover. Interactions between vegetation height and cover (i.e. density) were found for ratio of soil to plant OM, ADF, NDF, DM, DM digestibility, oil, and crude protein nutrients. The real-time measurement of soil and plant nutrients with NIRS allowed changes in vegetation cover across the agricultural landscape to be investigated.

Abstract: Urban parks are essential to sustainable cities, providing climate regulation, support-ing biodiversity, and offering vital spaces for recreation and overall well-being. How-ever, their soils also act as long-term reservoirs for persistent organic pollutants (POPs), resulting from decades of atmospheric deposition, diffuse urban emissions, and the inherent heterogeneity of urban soils. This review brings together current knowledge on the occurrence, sources, and environmental behaviour of priority POPs, such as OCPs, PCBs, PCDD/Fs, PBDEs, PFAS, and PAHs, in the soils of parks and gar-dens. We examine how the physicochemical properties of these compounds interact with urban soil features to influence sorption, mobility, degradation, and air–soil ex-change. Evidence from cities worldwide reveals consistent patterns: urban parks ac-cumulate mixtures of legacy and emerging pollutants, reflecting both historical inputs and ongoing urban activities. These contaminants contribute to chronic low-level ex-posure through soil ingestion, dust inhalation, and dermal contact, as well as through dietary intake when food is grown in parks. Such pathways have been linked to endo-crine, immune, neurodevelopmental, metabolic, and carcinogenic effects. Despite growing research, significant gaps remain. Mixture toxicity, temporal trends, harmo-nised monitoring, and exposure scenarios specific to recreational soils are still insuffi-ciently understood. Recognising urban parks as both essential green infrastructures and active repositories of persistent pollution is crucial for improving urban environ-mental management. By integrating ecological, toxicological, and urban-planning perspectives, this review highlights the need for proactive monitoring and policy de-velopment to ensure that parks remain healthy and equitable spaces within increas-ingly complex urban landscapes.

Abstract:

Wildfires pose an escalating threat to the oak-dominated forests of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, a biodiverse Zagros Mountains hotspot where long-term fire trends and drivers have remained poorly quantified. This study assessed interannual variability and long-term trends in total and forest-specific burned area from 2001 to 2024, examined spatial differences across Duhok, Erbil, Halabja, and Sulaymaniyah governorates, and identified primary climatic drivers of fire extent using MODIS MCD64A1 Version 6.1 burned-area data (500 m resolution) masked to a conservative ~2,000 km² oak forest layer derived from high-resolution 2024 NDVI classification. Across the entire Kurdistan Region, burned area averaged 687 km² year⁻¹ (SD = 640 km²), totalled 16,486 km² over the 24-year period, and exhibited a statistically significant upward trend of 31 km² year⁻¹ (Theil–Sen slope; Mann–Kendall p = 0.024). Forest burned area averaged 356 km² year⁻¹, displayed a significant increasing trend of 17 km² year⁻¹ (Mann–Kendall p = 0.016), and reached a cumulative 8,542 km²—more than four times the current ~2,000 km² forest cover—with Duhok and Sulaymaniyah together accounting for 77 % of cumulative forest loss and showing the strongest upward trends. Maximum temperature and drought severity were the dominant climatic drivers: each 1 °C rise in monthly maximum temperature increased expected burned area by 12.8 % (incidence-rate ratio = 1.128, p < 0.001), and a one-unit worsening of PDSI increased it by 22.5 % (incidence-rate ratio = 1.225, p < 0.001), with marked non-linear escalation above ~32 °C and PDSI < –2. These findings demonstrate that climate warming and drying are rapidly intensifying fire regimes across the Kurdistan Region and its forests, pushing oak ecosystems toward potential irreversible degradation, and underscore the urgent need for governorate-specific fire-management strategies and enhanced regional monitoring to protect this critical ecological and cultural resource under ongoing climate change.

Abstract: The assessment of lake environments is crucial in tropical regions to ensure clean water access, while local lake sediments may serve as indicators of the local geology and environmental hazards. In this study, a multivariate approach was used to explore the sediment geochemistry of ten small lakes in Dak Lak province in Vietnam, which are characterized by contrasting elemental abundances. Specifically, multivariate analyses (CA and PCA) were applied to three datasets (bulk content, EFAl, and EFFe) of 57 elements and further combined with geochemical indicators and normalized rare earth element distribution patterns. The results enabled the identification of different groups of lakes with distinct geochemical fingerprints related to the major geochemical formations. The applied method can be effectively utilized to discriminate the provenance of surface sediment in water reservoirs, maintaining good coherence even with limited geochemical data. This study provides a foundation for sustainable land use and optimized irrigation in the Dak Lak region, which is under climate change stresses, such as longer and harder droughts.

Abstract: An in-depth analysis of the drivers of agricultural emissions at the primary crop output and farm-gate levels is crucial to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. This study examines the short- and long-run effects of crop production on farm-gate emissions in the regional trading bloc (RTB) member states in Africa. We proxy crop production by cereals, roots and tubers, vegetables, and fruits production, and split emissions into methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Furthermore, we collected data on these variables from 30 member states of the selected RTBs in Africa from 1990 to 2022, which we analyzed using the cross-sectional augmented autoregressive distributive lag approach that controls for endogeneity and heterogeneous slopes. We also employed the pooled mean group and sub-sample analyses as robustness checks to ensure the reliability of study findings. Our results revealed that cereal production increases farm-gate methane and nitrous oxide emissions in Africa’s RTB member states in the short and long run. The increase is between the range of 1.0021 to 1.0033 kilotons CO2–eq yr-1 for methane and 1.0024 to 1.0035 kilotons CO2–eq yr-1 for nitrous oxide on average. Thus, cereal production has a more adverse effect on nitrous oxide than methane emissions. In addition, fruit production increases farm gate methane emissions in Africa’s RTB member states by 1.0023 kiloton CO2–eq yr-1 on average in the long run. We recommend promoting climate-smart agriculture, investing in agricultural emissions monitoring, surveillance, and reporting systems, and targeting cereal and fruit production systems in RTB emission control plans.

Abstract: Abundant plastic waste is projected to exacerbate climate change due to the substantial greenhouse gas emissions generated throughout the plastic life cycle—including raw material extraction, manufacturing, distribution, use, and disposal. As micro- and nanoplastics are increasingly detected across environmental compartments, they are contributing to significant ecological impacts, such as disrupting ecosystems and diminishing the ocean’s carbon sequestration capacity. Growing evidence has also intensified concerns about public health, as plastics-driven climate change and microplastic pollution facilitate the transport of contaminants, including emerging pollutants of concern such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). This study aims to identify the key issues linking plastics-driven climate change to environmental and public health effects. The specific objectives are to: (a) review the role of microplastics (MPs) in influencing climate change; (b) examine how transformed plastic polymers interact with recalcitrant contaminants, including antibiotic-resistant bacteria and PFAS; and (c) propose remediation strategies and recommend future research directions to address the escalating challenges associated with increasing global plastic production. Additionally, the paper presents a recent case study on the influence of MPs on antibiotic resistance and discusses persistent challenges in mitigating emerging public health risks posed by microplastic (MP) pollution and associated contaminants.

Abstract: The aim of the study was the silvicultural assessment of the species composition, structure, sanitary condition, productivity, and carbon content of three modal 120-140-year-old Scots pine forests in the East European forest-steppe of the Russian Plain. Silvicultural, forest inventory and mensuration methods were used to analyze the characteristics of these stands. The distribution models of trees by diameter and growth were analyzed, and the reserves of aboveground and underground phytomass for each forest stand were assessed. All surveyed forest stands are highly productive and in excellent sanitary condition. The forest stand on moist moderately fertile soils was characterized by higher forest mensuration characteristics on average. Allometric relationships between the diameter of forest stands and their height have been established, which will allow mathematical modeling and forecasting of the dynamics of forest stand characteristics in forestry practice. The surveyed forest stands on moderately moist moderately fertile soils store 112.9-122.6 tons of carbon per hectare (tC/ha) in their phytomass, on moist moderately fertile soils - 182.8 tC/ha. About 73% of carbon reserves are concentrated in the above-ground phytomass, and about 27% in the underground phytomass, respectively. Trunk wood accumulates the main part (58-60%) of the aboveground phytomass of the studied pine stands.

Abstract: The present review focuses on the peculiar environmental and health implications of fibrous am-phibole 'fluoro-edenite', a new mineral first reported in Biancavilla (Etna Mount, Sicily, Italy). Its presence has been linked to an unusually high incidence of malignant pleural mesothelioma during 1988–1997 national surveys, marking the first case study of natural occurrence of fibrous am-phibole in a volcanic context. Despite remediation effort since the cessation of quarrying activities at the “Il Calvario” quarry, the risk of fiber exposure may extend beyond urban areas to surrounding soils and volcanic formation, not fully characterized yet. This review synthesizes relevant existing literature on mineralogical and chemical features of fluoro-edenite, while also enriching current understanding with new observations from optical microscopy, stereomicroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Our analyses reveal the presence of fluoro-edenite amphibole not only in the altered samples but, significantly, within the massive rock samples. This findings expands its known distribution and offers initial consideration on public health implication related to massive lava rock, which crop out. This study highlights the importance of ongoing monitoring, detailed geological surveys, and further research into fiber occurrences and distribution in the volcanic systems, of which Mt Etna represents the first case of natural occurrences, in to fully assess their impact on public health.

Abstract: In this study, we present the main phases of the reconstruction of the town of Bisaccia after natural disasters. Bisaccia is a small town in the hinterland of the southern Apen-nines (southern Italy), most recently hit by the earthquake of 23 November 1980. However, the urban and socio-economic development of the town was determined not only by the earthquakes of the past centuries, such as those of 1694, 1732, 1930 and 1962, but also and above all by the fragility of the terrain deposits on which it stands, that caused complex landslide phenomena on the territory. The earthquake of 1980 made it possible to rebuild the village on a different site, not far from the old settle-ment, resulting in the de facto coexistence of two villages, with all the problems that this entails. This article examines how Bisaccia town has historically adapted and re-sponded to seismic and hydrogeological crises with the aim of point up the sustainable development of Bisaccia inland areas. We collected a photographic documentation of the actual urban reality of Bisaccia reporting in detail modern 'atypical and utopian' new assessment of the town as desired by its creator, the architect Aldo Loris Rossi.

Abstract: Urban lakes, as critical components of urban ecosystems, provide essential ecological services but face water quality deterioration due to rapid urbanization and associated land use changes. This study investigated the temporal and spatial characteristics and evolution mechanisms of water quality in Wuhan city lakes, with a focus on the Great East Lake basin (GELB), a typical urban lake cluster in the middle Yangtze River basin, encompassing six key lakes: East Lake (EL), Sha Lake (SL), Yangchun Lake (YCL), North Lake (NL), Yan East Lake (YEL), and Yan West Lake (YWL). The spa-tio-temporal variation of water quality was studied by analyzing monthly water en-vironment data from 2017 to 2023. The surrounding land use data of 2020 and the corresponding year's water quality data were integrated and examined to assess the impact of land use on major pollutants. The results showed that SL had the best water quality, EL, YEL, and YWL exhibited similar water quality evaluation results, while YCL and NL had the worst water quality. Seasonal variations in water quality were observed, influenced by the ecological functions of lakes and surrounding land use. Notably, understanding these seasonal dynamics provides insights into nutrient cycle operations and their effective management under varying climatic conditions. In ad-dition, the correlation between chlorophyll-a concentration and nutrient elements in urban lakes was not consistent, with some lakes showing significant negative correla-tions. The water quality of urban lakes is influenced by both land use and human management. Land use analysis indicated high impervious surfaces in EL, SL, and YCL exacerbated runoff-driven nutrient loads, YEL's nitrogen elevation from agricultural runoff, and NL's pollution from historical industrial discharge. This study highlights the urgent need for targeted water management strategies to mitigate the impact of urbanization on water quality and provide a scientific basis for effective governance and ecological restoration in rapidly urbanizing areas around the world. By adopting an integrated approach combining water quality assessments with land use data, this research offers valuable insights for sustainable urban lake management.

Abstract: This study investigates the environmental and economic dynamics of sustainable aviation through the perspectives of senior executives in Türkiye’s civil aviation sector. As global aviation continues to face increasing pressure to decarbonize, understanding how industry leaders perceive and respond to carbon emission challenges is critical. The research employs a qualitative methodology based on semi-structured interviews with ten executives across airlines, airports, and aviation authorities. Using Python-based data mining techniques and thematic analysis, three core themes emerged: (1) sustainable aviation experience and economic dimensions, (2) carbon emissions reduction and efficient aviation systems, and (3) sustainable energy and alternative fuel technologies. Findings reveal that while environmental sustainability is a growing concern, operational costs, technological constraints, and regulatory uncertainties significantly influence implementation. Stakeholders emphasized the importance of coordinated action among governments, industry, and international organizations, especially in scaling Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) and enhancing infrastructure for electric and hydrogen-powered aircraft. The study concludes that achieving net-zero aviation by 2050 requires an integrated approach that balances technological innovation, policy incentives, and stakeholder engagement. This multidimensional insight contributes to the ongoing discourse on low-carbon transition strategies in aviation, offering policy-relevant implications for developing countries.

Abstract: Sulfur is an important constant element in the crust, with a mass abundance of approximately 0.03%, is mainly obtained as a by-product of hydrodesulfurization in petroleum refining. Although China produces over ten million tons of sulfur annually, its applications remain limited, and while sulfur is not flammable under normal conditions, its oxidizability and potential to catch fire under extreme conditions pose safety and environmental risks during storage. To address these issues, we developed a multicomponent polymerization (MCP) strategy using elemental sulfur, dicarboxylic acids, and diamines to synthesize functional polythioamides. This metal-free approach utilizes readily available raw materials and enables the efficient construction of structurally diverse polymers. Unlike previously reported MCP systems relying on aromatic monomers, our work employed aliphatic diamines and diacids, yielding polythioamides with rigid structures and excellent properties. Characterization by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Adsorption studies demonstrated a strong affinity for Hg(II), with a maximum capacity of 187 mg·g⁻¹. SEM, XPS revealed clear morphological and compositional changes after Hg(II) uptake, confirming efficient adsorption. This work highlights MCP as a promising route for converting sulfur into functional polymers with high potential in wastewater treatment and environmental remediation.

Abstract: Conducting carbon footprint studies on bamboo scrimber products based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) can quantitatively declare its environmental performance and further the cleaner-production improvement. This study established a life cycle model and inventory data set for bamboo scrimber flooring from "cradle to gate," accurately quantifying carbon emissions during raw material transportation and product production stages. Two types of bamboo scrimber flooring processes (deep carbon and shallow carbon). In addition, this study compared the carbon footprints of products processed using bamboo scrimber flooring and bamboo plywood template production methods. Results showed that the carbon emissions during the processing of 1m³ of deep carbon and shallow carbon bamboo scrimber flooring were 1845.99 kg CO2 e and 1570.85 kg CO2 e respectively. When coupling the carbon storage of raw material supply and product usage stages, the life-cycle carbon footprints for 1m³ of deep carbon and shallow carbon bamboo scrimber flooring were 962.23 kg CO2 e and 677.86 kg CO2 e, respectively. The carbon emissions and life cycle carbon footprint for the processing of bamboo plywood templates were 1435.55 kg CO2 e and 640.23 kg CO2 e, respectively. Analysis of different these processes and effects that found adhesives had the greatest impact on the carbon footprint.

Abstract: Alberta’s adoption of the federal carbon pricing backstop in 2019 provides a natural ex- 2 periment to disentangle whether firms respond to policy certainty (credible long-term 3 commitments) or price-level effects (actual carbon costs). Using a within-firm difference- 4 in-differences approach combined with nine alternative identification strategies on 1,381 5 firms over 2004–2023, we test responses to three distinct policy events across a unified 6 segmented specification. Our core findings: (1) green patenting is modest at announcement 7 (2.38, not significant), peaks at legislative clarification (5.50, p = 0.026), and is small at 8 implementation (1.03, not significant), totaling about nine additional patents by 2019+, 9 implying that policy detail—not initial news or price imposition—drives innovation; (2) 10 emission intensity improvements emerge early at announcement and strengthen through 11 implementation; (3) within-firm DiD shows green patent applications increase by 14.11 12 units (17% relative to baseline) post-2019; (4) emission intensity decreases by 185.24 units 13 (28% reduction); but (5) absolute emissions do not decline significantly due to 28.6% output 14 expansion offsetting efficiency gains. We conclude that policy design matters: firms respond 15 to specific policy milestones, but carbon pricing alone cannot achieve absolute emission 16 reductions without output restrictions.

Abstract: Atmospheric rivers (ARs) are narrow corridors of concentrated moisture transport that deliver much of the extreme precipitation in the western United States, but their clustering behavior is not well represented in many climate studies. This study examined how seasonal variability and major climate modes such as El Niño and La Niña affect the frequency and clustering of AR events. Multi-decadal reanalysis datasets and observational records were used to quantify clustering through consecutive AR days and event sequences. The results show that clustering is about 28% higher during El Niño phases compared with neutral years, while La Niña phases produce fewer but more spatially concentrated events. These outcomes indicate that AR persistence is strongly shaped by large-scale climate drivers rather than occurring randomly, with direct consequences for flood forecasting and water resource planning. The study concludes that including climate variability in AR prediction systems can improve the accuracy of seasonal forecasts, although further work is needed to resolve local precipitation processes and address gaps in observations.

Abstract: The Ambang River Basin holds significant significance for the residents of Greater Malang in East Java as they confront the peril of flooding. In order to assist the government in attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is necessary for the management of the Ambang River Watershed (DAS) to incorporate ecological, economic, social, institutional, and technological aspects. The objective of this study is to assess the sustainability of the Ambang Sub-watershed and determine the key elements that impact the management's sustainability of the Ambang Sub-watershed. This study employs methodologies such as observation, interviews, documentation studies, and literature evaluation. The Malang rapflood tool employs a descriptive analytic technique and Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) for analysis. The results indicates that the sustainability of watershed management in the ecological, social, institutional, economic, and technological dimensions is classified as sustained for the upstream and middle Ambang sub- watersheds. The sustainability status of the Ambang sub-watershed management is classified as unsustainable. Improving the sustainable management of the Ambang sub-watershed requires attention to 21 variables.

Abstract: Understanding and mapping community vulnerability to hydroclimatic risks are critical prerequisites for effective flood disaster management and resilience planning. This study applies the IPCC AR5 framework to assess and map flood risk across 86 villages in the Lower Ouémé Valley (BVO), Benin, with the goal of spatializing risk levels to better inform local adaptation and decision-making. An integrated approach combining participatory diagnosis and spatial modeling was adopted. Data were collected at the community level using KoboCollect, and a set of indicators representing the three components of risk—hazard, exposure, and vulnerability were developed, normalized, and weighted according to the AR5 framework. Thematic maps were then generated in QGIS to visualize spatial variations in risk. The results indicate that approximately 72% of the villages face medium to very high levels of flood risk, reflecting significant disparities associated with flood duration, water depth, population density, and poverty index. The most affected zones require priority attention for the implementation of early warning systems and adaptive response strategies. Only 10% of the surveyed villages currently possess hydrological monitoring devices, while local risk perception remains predominantly based on indigenous knowledge. These findings emphasize the need for territorialized climate risk governance grounded in participatory and scientifically validated mapping approaches. The study proposes a replicable methodology for spatial flood risk assessment that operationalizes the IPCC AR5 conceptual framework at the local scale. Future work could enhance this approach through dynamic risk modeling and the integration of high-resolution satellite data to improve the spatial and temporal accuracy of flood risk prediction.

Abstract: This research examines the persistent shoreline erosion along the Damietta coast and the problem of sediment buildup within the navigation channel of Damietta Port, both of which provide major obstacles to navigation efficiency and coastal balance. To address these issues, the research uses the LITPACK numerical model to forecast shoreline evolution along the Damietta coast, which is divided into two sections of 3.3 km each, during the next 20 years. Considering both planned and existing coastal constructions, two realistic alternatives were proposed. The Coastal Modeling System (CMS) was then used to perform a two-dimensional simulation in order to examine sediment transport and hydrodynamic behavior in the port region. This phase concentrated on examining the effects of sedimentation rates following the most recent port development plan, which included building a massive 5560-meter-long western jetty and a new navigation channel with a depth of 9 m to service the dirty ballast terminal. In comparison to the benchmark case, the simulation results showed a 93% decrease in sedimentation rates within the navigation channel. The study's final phase evaluated the impact of changing the crest levels of the current detached breakwaters along the Ras El-Bar coastline on reducing coastal erosion. The study's conclusions promote the creation of effective and sustainable coastal protection plans in the Damietta area by providing insightful information for future coastal zone management and planning.

Abstract: Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is a vital ecological indicator used to monitor land productivity and the health of ecosystems, particularly in climate-sensitive areas like the Eastern Sahel. However, the spatial heterogeneity in the relationships between NPP and environmental factors complicates accurate predictions. This research aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of geographically weighted statistical and machine learning models in predicting NPP, while considering spatial non-stationarity and non-linear interactions. The study used 939 spatial observations of the NPP in conjunction with four environmental predictors: rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, and elevation, spanning Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Initially, a global Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model was used as a reference point. Subsequently, three geographically weighted models, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), Geographically Weighted Random Forest (GWRF), and Geographically Weighted Neural Network (GWNN) were executed to account for spatial variability and non-linear effects. The performance of the models was assessed using R², MSE, RMSE, MAE, and spatial residual diagnostics. All geographically weighted models outperformed the global OLS baseline in terms of both predictive accuracy and spatial sensitivity. GWNN achieved the highest performance (R2 = 0.9360; RMSE = 0.0333), followed closely by GWRF (R2 = 0.9308) and GWR (R2 = 0.9207), compared to OLS (R2 = 0.8354). The residual spatial autocorrelation was completely resolved in GWNN and GWRF. Rainfall was consistently the most significant predictor, while the effects of other variables, such as elevation and temperature, varied between different spatial contexts. The findings of this research emphasise the value of combining spatial weighting with machine learning methodologies to model ecological productivity in heterogeneous landscapes. The GWNN model, in particular, stands out as a powerful tool for improving NPP predictions in regions sensitive to climate change.

Abstract: This paper investigates the adsorption performance of green mesoporous silica (GMS-24h) and its amine-functionalized derivative (GMS-24h–NH2) for Cr(III) removal from aqueous systems. Adsorption isotherms were evaluated using the Langmuir and Freundlich models. GMS-24h achieved a maximum capacity of 303 mg·g⁻¹ at pH 3, while GMS-24h– NH2 showed a maximum capacity of 370 mg·g⁻¹ at pH 5. When compared to other silica-based materials, such as SRH and SRH–Triamine, the GMS materials demonstrated up to 44% higher adsorption capacity. Kinetic studies indicated that the pseudo-second-order (PSO) model provided the most accurate description of the adsorption process, as evidenced by high correlation coefficients (R2 &gt; 0.99) and low deviation values (Δq &lt; 20%). The equilibrium factor Rw showed rapid system stabilization. Intraparticle and external diffusion models demonstrated that both mechanisms contribute to the overall process, with external diffusion dominating at low Cr(III) concentrations and intraparticle diffusion at higher levels. The number of diffusion steps remained constant across a range of pH values, indicating a pH-independent mechanism. However, an additional chelation step (N→Cr) was observed in GMS-24h–NH2. These findings underscore the promise of GMS-based materials as effective adsorbents for the remediation of heavy metals in water treatment applications.