Engineering

Abstract: Despite the large amount of successful existing methods and frameworks for planning sets of multiple Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), there are still lack of coordination frameworks capable of coping with real-world operational conditions. This paper presents U-Plan, an integrated management framework for the coordination of multi-UAS missions. U-Plan is designed to plan, schedule, monitor, and replan a heterogeneous set of UAS to complete Points of Interest (PoIs) visiting missions while ensuring that all generated trajectories are safe, feasible, and compliant with the required PoIs’ arrival times, UAS kinematics and energetic constraints, and the existing 3D No-FLy Zones (NFZs). U-Plan is designed as a practical tool for strongly dynamic missions, and is built upon three core components: 1) an NFZ-aware route computation method that explicitly accounts for NFZs prior to the Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) optimization, resulting in shorter NFZ-safe routes; 2) a trajectory planning module that ensures the generation of kinematically-feasible trajectories for fixed-wing UAS; and 3) a mission supervision module for real-time monitoring and replanning in case of changes in UAS, mission, wind speed, or airspace restrictions. It was implemented and validated by interfacing with professional-grade Visionair Ground Control Station Software and the VECTOR-SIL Software-in-the-Loop simulator, which realistically replicates the behavior of certified fixed-wing autopilots under various weather conditions. The validation shows U-Plan’s capacity to efficiently satisfy complex mission requirements with strong scalability. Due to its high computational efficiency, U-Plan enables online mission replanning, allowing UAS fleets to seamlessly adapt to changes typical of real-world operational scenarios.

Abstract: Atmospheric icing is one of the most critical meteorological hazards for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), whose operation under adverse conditions—high latitudes, elevated altitudes, long-endurance missions without pilot intervention—particularly exposes them to ice accumulation on aerodynamic surfaces and propellers. Unlike manned aviation, where this phenomenon has been extensively studied and regulated, a significant knowledge gap exists in the UAV domain that limits the development of effective protection systems adapted to energy constraints. This article provides an integrated review of atmospheric ice formation mechanisms, their specific effects on UAV propellers, and the two most promising mitigation approaches: electrothermal modelling for the optimisation of electric heating systems, and the development of functional surface materials, including superhydrophobic coatings (SHC), composites with conductive nanofillers (graphene, carbon nanotubes), and piezoelectric actuators. The analysis demonstrates that hybrid systems combining passive and active strategies managed by intelligent control represent the most viable solution for extending UAV operational envelopes under known icing conditions, with a potential reduction in anti-icing energy consumption exceeding 40% compared to conventional continuous heating. Key research gaps are identified, and a prioritised future research agenda is proposed to support the development of certifiable anti-icing systems for rotary-wing UAV platforms.

Abstract: Early identification of corrosion-prone conditions remains a major maintenance challenge in closed, hard-to-access structural zones. This paper presents a multi-sensor data fusion approach for early warning of corrosion-prone conditions in selected closed zones of a medical rescue aircraft, as part of a structural health monitoring framework. The study combines sensor selection, installation in restricted-access compartments, and analysis of in-service data collected during helicopter operation. The workflow includes data acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction, fused interpretation of multi-channel data, and assignment of warning levels linked to maintenance actions. Environmental, conductance, and electrochemical channels provide a first-stage early-warning layer that indicates persistent conditions favorable to long-term corrosion development, rather than direct proof of existing damage. Persistent warning states are intended to trigger staged follow-up diagnostics: PZT sensing localizes suspect subregions, while eddy-current sensing verifies and monitors the growth of local metallic degradation. Field inspection evidence of corrosion in hidden zones supports the practical relevance of this approach. Although demonstrated on an aircraft, the methodology is transferable to other closed or poorly accessible structural zones, including civil engineering applications.

Abstract: The aircraft is often difficult to be stably evaluated due to energy fluctuations in the final approach phase. The traditional single-parameter threshold monitoring method is difficult to capture the complex coupling relationship between dynamic energy and potential energy, and the adaptability is insufficient under variable meteorological disturbances. Therefore, this study proposes a new multi-dimensional prediction and evaluation method, which integrates energy management theory and deep learning technology, aiming to improve the early recognition ability of unstable approach under complex meteorological conditions and optimize the energy regulation ability. Firstly, a new stability evaluation framework is constructed from the perspective of energy. Two core evaluation parameters of ' energy altitude ' and ' balance energy ' are proposed. This method breaks the traditional way of monitoring speed and altitude parameters in isolation. In this paper, a dynamic safety boundary function is designed based on the principle of flight mechanics and civil aviation specifications. The function uses an altitude attenuation mechanism to make the boundary shrink smoothly with the decrease of flight altitude. At the same time, the sliding window statistics and balanced energy triggering mechanism are introduced, which significantly enhances the adaptability of the boundary to various disturbances and effectively overcomes the lag problem of static boundary response. By establishing a multi-dimensional parameter system with energy altitude and balance energy as the core, this study reveals the mechanism of dynamic energy potential energy coupling on approach stability. The hybrid dynamic boundary function realizes the collaborative optimization of physical constraints and data-driven. The research results provide a new theoretical paradigm for solving the evaluation of unstable approach under complex weather, and have important theoretical value and engineering application prospects for ensuring flight safety.

Abstract: Sample return missions are the most difficult tasks we ask robotic spacecraft to undertake in exploring our solar system, but we do so because of the high value returned samples have for the planetary science community. Thus far, we have only acquired samples from: the Moon, three asteroids, a comet’s tail, and the solar wind at the Earth-Sun Lagrange Points. The National Academy’s most recent decadal survey of planetary science in NASA — Origins, Worlds, Life (OWL) — emphasized the value of samples returned to Earth for analysis and called for NASA to prioritize samples returned from Mars, the Moon’ South Pole, a Jupiter-family comet, and Ceres. Currently available rockets and propulsion technology impose severe, and possibly insurmountable, limits to where we can send robot explorers and return samples within a reasonable timescale. Now, the advent of large new rockets offers the potential for very high C3 Earth escape trajectories. Parallel developments in Nuclear Propulsion yield much higher ISP than chemical propulsion and can operate far away from the Sun. Our novel trajectory and mission architecture analysis shows that, combining these technologies, sample return from all across the solar system starts to become feasible within the career lifetime of a planetary scientist.

Abstract: This paper presents a robust linear-quadratic attitude-tracking controller for a nonlinear spacecraft with disturbances. Quaternions are used to represent the spacecraft’s attitude to prevent gimbal lock associated with Euler angles. Nonlinear rotation dynamics are controlled by nonlinear dynamic inversion (NDI) with an augmented linear-quadratic controller. However, quaternions in rotation dynamics can encounter singularities during dynamic inversion, leading to numerical instability in control input calculations. To resolve this problem, we propose a new NDI method based on the Lagrange equation for quaternion dynamics. Since NDI may not fully compensate for nonlinearities due to unknown disturbances or modeling errors, a nonlinear disturbance observer is incorporated into the controller to compensate for disturbances. Simulations are performed to compare with previous work and according to a real attitude control testbed with gravity disturbances. Validation results demonstrate strong disturbance rejection and singularity-free performance for the proposed controller framework.

Abstract: This study explores the development of lattice-based panels for satellite applications using Direct Metal Laser Sintering and aimed to optimize lightweight, high-strength structures suitable for CubeSat deployment. Three lattice configurations namely Body-Centered Cubic, Octet, and Gyroid were evaluated. While Gyroid lattices exhibited the highest compressive strength at 13,825.8 N, the BCC lattice was selected for the final design due to superior manufacturability and weight reduction potential. The final optimized panel weighed 185.7 g, achieving an 11.4% reduction from the initial rib-type design and a 65.2% reduction from a solid panel. Finite Element Analysis and mechanical testing confirmed that the fabricated structures met the necessary mechanical requirements for aerospace launch conditions.

Abstract: Today, the aviation industry is transitioning from fossil fuel to renewable energy. Re-newable energy systems have advantages, such as cleanliness and reduced emissions, but also face limitations in battery energy density and aerodynamic performance dur-ing operation. Therefore, electric ducted propulsion fans (eDPFs) are a promising so-lution that uses duct components to enhance aerodynamic efficiency and operational safety. This study utilizes average Navier-Stokes analysis, incorporating Reynolds numbers and a k-ω SST turbulence model, to examine eDPF configurations both with and without a secondary air intake channel, concentrating on internal flow dynamics and aerodynamic efficiency. The air intake channel, which is located close to the tip of the rotor blade, helps the eDPF move more mass and create more thrust. Several dif-ferent configurations of the secondary air intake channel were tested by varying the intake channel position, curvature, and size of the inlet and outlet ports under static conditions at 6000 rpm. The best design improved thrust by an additional 2.2% com-pared to the baseline case without the auxiliary intake port

Abstract: Satellite communication (SATCOM) has emerged as a critical enabler of beyond-line-of-sight (BLOS) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations, yet its role as a constraining factor on UAV control performance and mission safety has received insufficient analytical treatment. This paper presents a comprehensive, system-level analytical framework that models end-to-end communication latency across the SATCOM pipeline and directly links it to UAV control responsiveness, mission safety, and autonomy requirements. The framework proceeds through four integrated contributions. First, a deterministic latency decomposition model establishes governing equations that define the critical velocity threshold and the autonomy transition boundary for human-in-the-loop UAV teleoperation. Second, this deterministic model is extended into a probabilistic framework by incorporating stochastic jitter arising from low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite handovers, enabling the derivation of a probability of safety breach metric that replaces binary operational thresholds with continuous risk quantification. Third, an adaptive autonomy control architecture is proposed, in which UAV systems monitor real-time link performance and dynamically adjust velocity and control authority in response to measured latency conditions. Fourth, the regulatory implications of the framework are examined, identifying pathways toward latency-aware UAV operational standards. Across three representative operational scenarios — urban surveillance, remote infrastructure inspection, and disaster response — the results demonstrate that geostationary earth orbit (GEO) SATCOM constrains safe teleoperation to low-speed regimes, while LEO constellations extend the operable envelope but introduce jitter-driven risk. The proposed framework provides a principled, durable basis for communication architecture selection, autonomy system design, and the development of latency-aware standards for next-generation unmanned aerial systems.

Abstract: This paper presents a certification-oriented, system-level analysis of using Linux in safety-critical airborne avionics, with emphasis on Design Assurance Level (DAL) A/B systems. Linux is a feature-rich general-purpose OS whose open and dynamic execution semantics can be difficult to finitely bound and operationally “freeze” at integration time. We analyze how key architectural characteristics of Linux—including a large trusted computing base (TCB), asynchronous kernel activity, mutable memory mappings, monolithic privilege domains, and a rapidly evolving toolchain—interact with assurance objectives commonly expected under DO-178C and DO-330. The analysis identifies eight independently sufficient certification-relevant risk factors affecting temporal determinism, spatial isolation, fault containment, configuration stability, and lifecycle assurance feasibility. To avoid fragmented observations, these factors are consolidated into a unified causal framework that traces certification challenges back to two consequence categories: airworthiness feasibility constraints and semantic complexity. The framework also evaluates commonly proposed mitigations (e.g., PREEMPT_RT, containers, and static configuration) and explains why these measures may not address the underlying system-level issues. The contribution of this work is a structured argumentation framework that makes architectural implications explicit and supports operating-system selection and safety governance decisions in integrated modular avionics.

Abstract: 15Cr14Co12Mo5Ni2, as a new type of low-carbon high-alloy aviation gear steel, has shown significant application potential in the transmission systems of aero engines due to its excellent high-temperature performance. In this paper, the aviation gear steel 15Cr14Co12Mo5Ni2 was treated by carburizing and quenching process. The microstructure distributions of the carburized and quenched aviation gear steel at different quenching temperature were analyzed by OM, SEM and EBSD. Subsequently, the axial tension-compressive fatigue tests (stress ratio R=-1) were carried out using a high-frequency fatigue testing machine after heat treatment at different quenching temperature (1020℃, 1050℃ and 1080℃), and the stress-number of cycles (S-N) curves were obtained by fitting the number of fatigue fracture cycles. The fracture morphologies were observed by SEM and the fracture mechanisms were analyzed. The research results show that the distribution of the microstructure and carbides exhibit gradient characteristics, and the carbide content decreases and the effective carburized layer depth decreases from 0.65mm to 0.45mm with increasing quenching temperature, also the main carbide types are M₂₃C₆ and M₇C₃. The fatigue life of 15Cr14Co12Mo5Ni2 gear steel decreases as the quenching temperature increases. Their fatigue strengths at a given fatigue life of 10⁶ cycles at 1020℃, 1050℃ and 1080℃ are 192 MPa, 183 MPa and 158 MPa, respectively. The cracks propagate outward from the core and the propagation rate accelerates with the increasing quenching temperature, eventually fracturing in the carburized layer. The fracture mechanism of 15Cr14Co12Mo5Ni2 gear steel at the quenching temperatures of 1020℃ was a mixed mode of intergranular and cleavage brittle fracture, while at 1050℃and 1080℃, it is mainly brittle fracture accompanied by local ductile fracture.

Abstract: Aircraft flyover measurements are used to record the acoustic pressure signals generated by large civil aircraft as they fly over a large-scale microphone array deployed on the ground, thereby obtaining the spatial distribution of aircraft airframe noise and providing technical support for aircraft noise reduction. Aircraft flyover measurements have been widely applied in the research and development of numerous large civil aircraft in Europe and North America since the 1990s. In recent years, aircraft flyover measurements have also been extensively adopted in China, particularly with the rapid development of C919, China's large civil aircraft. Computer vision techniques have also been applied to microphone position calibration and aircraft trajectory determination in measurements, which has effectively improved measurement efficiency and accuracy. This paper presents an integrated procedure for aircraft flyover measurements of large civil aircraft in China, including microphone array design, installation, and calibration, noise acquisition system setup and data acquisition, aircraft trajectory determination, and data processing.

Abstract: The social dimension of sustainability is increasingly recognized as essential to the aviation sector, yet systematic assessment of social impacts across aircraft systems and their associated design and production processes remains limited. This study applies Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA) principles, guided by the UNEP/SETAC guidelines and the ISO 14075:2024 standard, to perform a country-based screening that identifies, quantifies, and analyzes hotspot impacts associated with materials production and manufacturing in the aviation sector. A tailored SLCA framework is developed to reflect the specific characteristics of the aviation sector and to identify relevant stakeholder groups, including workers, local communities, consumers, value chain actors, and society. Aviation-specific social indicators are defined in line with industry needs and regulatory expectations, enabling socially informed decision-making during early design stages. The methodology is demonstrated through a comparative assessment of two major commercial aircraft, examining social impacts across global supply chains, identifying social hotspots and country-specific risk drivers, and evaluating targeted improvement measures. In addition, alternative component production locations are assessed to explore supply-chain configurations with lower social risks. The results provide actionable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders and support holistic sustainability assessments by explicitly integrating the social dimension into sustainable aircraft design.

Abstract: Fiber-reinforced polymer composites are increasingly used in lightweight aerospace structures due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance, and superior mechanical performance compared with conventional metallic materials. Among these materials, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) and carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have gained widespread attention for use in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) structures, where structural efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness are critical design considerations. Understanding the compressive behaviour and failure mechanisms of composite laminates is therefore essential for ensuring structural reliability and safe operation in aerospace applications. This study presents an experimental investigation of the compressive behaviour of woven E-glass fiber-reinforced epoxy and carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composite laminates. Rectangular specimens were prepared from commercially manufactured composite laminate plates with approximate dimensions of 100 mm × 95 mm and a laminate thickness of approximately 1.5 mm. Compression tests were performed using a universal testing machine under displacement-controlled loading conditions until structural failure occurred. The results revealed significant differences in the mechanical response of the two composite systems. Carbon fiber-reinforced laminates exhibited considerably higher stiffness and compressive load capacity due to the higher modulus of carbon fibers. However, carbon fiber specimens exhibited brittle failure, characterized by sudden fiber fracture and a rapid loss of load-carrying capacity. In contrast, E-glass laminates exhibited lower stiffness but showed more progressive damage, including matrix cracking and fiber buckling, prior to final failure. These findings highlight the trade-off between stiffness and damage tolerance in fiber-reinforced composites and provide useful experimental insight into the compressive performance of commonly used aerospace composite materials. The results contribute to the development and optimization of lightweight composite structures for UAV structural applications.

Abstract: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly recognized as a viable option for urban parcel delivery. However, their energy performance under varying environmental and mission conditions remains underexplored. This paper presents a simulation-based analysis of multirotor UAV energy consumption using the PX4-Gazebo platform, calibrated with real-world telemetry from a publicly available DJI Matrice 100 dataset [12]. Three UAV models—Iris, Typhoon H480, and Octocopter—were evaluated across a range of payloads (0.1–5 kg), cruise speeds (2–16 m/s), and environmental factors, including wind, temperature, and humidity. Results revealed consistent U-shaped energy speed curves, with optimal cruise speeds ranging from 8 to 10 m/s, depending on the payload and platform. Headwinds alone increased energy consumption by up to 25% and combined cold–dry and headwind conditions resulted in increases of up to 53% for lightweight platforms. Validation against field telemetry showed mean absolute percentage errors below 11%. These findings offer a simulation-grounded framework for UAV mission planning, platform selection, and integration into energy-efficient logistics networks, and development of data-driven optimization frameworks. The three platforms span a 10-fold mass range (1.4–14 kg), enabling systematic analysis of how energy scaling behavior varies across lightweight, mid-range, and heavy-lift delivery configurations.

Abstract: The static bending behaviour of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) wings fabricated from composite materials is a crucial determinant of structural performance, particularly under progressive deformation demands that span from nominal service loads to severe deflection conditions. This study develops a progressive, displacement-controlled framework to compare the static bending response of hybrid E-glass/epoxy and carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP)/epoxy wings, both with Paulownia internal structure, and a full Paulownia baseline, under increasing tip displacements. Finite element simulations capture load–displacement response, stress redistribution, and energy absorption across displacement regimes from −5 to −50 mm. Results demonstrate that CFRP-skinned wings exhibit higher initial stiffness in the elastic regime, whereas E-glass skins provide improved energy absorption and more progressive stress distribution at large displacements. Conversely, Paulownia alone performs poorly under severe bending, confirming the essential role of composite skins for bending load resistance. The findings underscore the importance of displacement regime classification in static bending assessments and suggest that E-glass composites can offer effective, damage-tolerant alternatives to CFRP for UAV wing applications, particularly where large deformation tolerance is required.

Abstract: A nonlinear backstepping control framework is developed for autonomous landing of a quadrotor on a wave-excited marine platform. The study addresses the underactuated nature of the aerial vehicle and the strong coupling between translational and rotational dynamics, ensuring stable trajectory tracking under sea-induced disturbances. Reference trajectories are generated through physically grounded Pierson-Moskowitz (PM) and Modified Pierson-Moskowitz (MPM) wave spectra, enabling realistic modeling of vertical heave motion, while horizontal position and yaw are defined through harmonic components adapted to the sea-state regime. The controller is designed through a seven-step recursive backstepping procedure, with Lyapunov functions guaranteeing asymptotic stability of the tracking errors for the regulated outputs. A modular MATLAB simulation platform is implemented, integrating the full 6-DOF quadrotor dynamics, the control algorithm, and spectral reference generation. Numerical simulations demonstrate that the Lyapunov function derivatives remain negative over the entire simulation horizon, confirming asymptotic convergence. Comparative results with a tuned PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller indicate superior tracking performance, damping and reduced amplitude and phase errors for the backstep-ping approach, especially under MPM-based trajectories representing rough sea states. The proposed framework establishes a reliable basis for adaptive extensions and future Hardware-in-the-Loop validation of autonomous landing on moving marine platforms.

Abstract: This paper introduced the analysis of the behavior and effects of the rotor passage shock in the axial-flow compressor design inverse problem. Based on the design results of the S2m streamline curvature through flow inverse problem and blading of the axial flow compressors, taking the relative supersonic streamlines of the rotor as equivalent to a group of layers of the quasi-one-dimensional duct flow, this paper deduced a variational principle of the normal passage shock, interrupting the flow actually, stationed inside each layer of the rotor passage. It is found that the factors affecting the stationarity of the rotor passage shock include the variable cross-sectional area, the frictional and other on way losses, and the variable rotational radius of the duct flow. According to the variational principle, the stationary locations of the shock in these equivalent duct flows affected by three factors are obtained by the momentum relaxation method, and the location stability of these shocks is analyzed. In the applications to various types of transonic axial compressor rotors, first, the discontinuous entropy generation loss distributions along the cascades of each supersonic layer are set, to consider the boundary layer, oblique shock, normal passage shock, shock boundary layer interference, and trail edge losses. Second, applying the variational principle to the duct flows affected by these three factors for each streamline, all the shock locations that possess location stability are detected. Third, by comparing with the flow field results of the direct problem of Computational Fluid Dynamics, the dimensionless distribution law of the real entropy generation loss along the layer cascades is decided. Finally, by combining the shock lines from each equivalent duct flow corresponding to each streamline, a curved surface structure of the normal passage shock in a rotor passage is established. In the given design examples of three kinds of axial compressor stages, the three-dimensional structures of the normal passage shock obtained by this method are consistently in good agreement with the results of the direct problem of Computational Fluid Dynamics. These afford verifications to this method for its effectiveness and wide applicability. This method provides a theory and a technology, in the through flow and blading inverse problem design phase of an axial compressor, to quickly predict the location and the curved surface shape of the normal passage shock, and to characterize approximately and evaluate relatively whether the design surge margin of a transonic stage is sufficient.

Abstract: Composite wing structures are widely used in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) because of their high specific strength and stiffness, but they are vulnerable to localized impact events such as tool drops, runway debris and small bird or drone strikes. In many aerospace applications, carbon fiber–reinforced polymers (CFRP) are preferred for their high stiffness and weight efficiency, although they tend to fail in a brittle manner and are expensive. E-glass fiber composites, on the other hand, are tougher and cheaper, but usually considered less competitive in stiffness and impact resistance. This study numerically investigates the impact resistance of optimized E-glass fiber composite UAV wing skins compared with aerospace-grade carbon fiber skins, both supported by balsa-wood cores. A 3D finite element (FE) model of a 600 mm semi-span UAV wing segment was developed in Abaqus/Explicit, with a user-defined VUMAT implementing an orthotropic elastic law and a Hashin-type progressive damage model. A rigid spherical impactor (radius 8 mm) with various mass velocity combinations (0.5 kg at 5000 and 10 000 mm/s, and 1.0 kg at 20 000 mm/s) was used to represent low, medium and high energy impacts. E-glass material sets were defined and gradually improved, within realistic mechanical limits derived from published E-glass/epoxy systems, until a “maximum experimental limit” E-glass configuration was obtained. This optimized E-glass wing skin was then compared with carbon-fiber configurations taken as benchmark aerospace. The comparison is based on peak contact force, penetration or non-penetration, absorbed energy, and damage extent in the skin and sub-structure. The study also proposes a coupon- and sub-component-level experimental programme to validate the numerical predictions using drop-weight impact tests on E-glass and carbon-fiber laminates and on a scaled UAV wing segment. These findings indicate that suitably engineered E-glass composites can be a viable, cost-effective alternative to carbon fiber for impact-resistant UAV wing structures.

Abstract: The development of supersonic aircraft presents significant challenges in ensuring safety during early design stages, particularly for fuel tank systems exposed to extreme thermal and structural loads. Conventional document-based zonal safety analysis methods are limited in their capacity to identify hazards at the conceptual design phase. This study proposes an integrated framework combining computer-aided design (CAD) and model-based systems engineering (MBSE) to support early-stage zonal hazard analysis. The framework links spatial subsystem modelling with functional system architecture to enable iterative hazard identification and mitigation. Applied to the SA-24 Phoenix conceptual supersonic aircraft, the approach identifies critical risks, including fuel vaporization, over-pressurization, and structural fatigue, and evaluates mitigation strategies such as thermal insulation and redundant venting. Functional hazard analysis and fault tree analysis are used to assess failure scenarios and ensure compliance with EASA CS-25 requirements. Results indicate an estimated 40% reduction in risk priority number values for key thermal hazard pathways and a 25% reduction in conceptual design iteration time compared with conventional approaches. The findings demonstrate that CAD–MBSE integration offers a scalable and efficient methodology for early hazard identification, contributing to safer and more reliable supersonic aircraft design.