Chemistry and Materials Science

Abstract:

The global rise of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis has intensified the need for novel and sustainable therapeutics that can overcome the limitations of conventional antibiotics, including toxicity and declining efficacy. Selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs) are a biocompatible and multifunctional alternative, yet most studies rely on chemically synthesised forms. This study investigated the potential of extracts from marine macroalgae (Palmaria palmata, Ulva intestinalis, Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratus, and Laminaria digitata), with and without ascorbic acid supplementation, to function as reducing and stabilising agents. Se-NPs were successfully synthesised without chemical reductants, maintaining comparable size, morphology, and stability to their ascorbic acid-aided counterparts and were systematically characterised using UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, XRD, DLS, zeta potential, TEM, SEM, and EDX techniques. Biological efficacy was assessed against five Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains with varying resistance phenotypes. Crude macroalgae extracts displayed no intrinsic antimycobacterial activity, whereas Se-NPs exhibited robust and broad-spectrum inhibition, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC₅₀ and MIC₉₀) in several cases comparable to reference antibiotics. Se-NPs derived from P. palmata and U. intestinalis were the most effective, including against resistant strains. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first study to evaluate Se-NPs synthesised from macroalgae against M. tuberculosis. The findings highlight their potential as sustainable, low-cost, and biocompatible nanotherapeutics for combating wild-type and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

Abstract: In scientific literature biosynthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles and synthesis of these nanoparticles using small organic molecules such as citrate have been called ´green´. In abstracts of scientific publications gold or silver nanoparticles obtained by ´green´ synthesis have been rather frequently characterized as biocompatible. Biocompatible means: having no negative impact on exposed organisms. Two kinds of reasons have been used as underpinning for this characterization. The first is the biocompatibility of the substances used in ´green´ synthesis and coating nanoparticles. This reason lacks a solid empirical basis. The second reason given for biocompatibility is limited testing of the nanoparticles obtained by ´green´ synthesis, mainly in vitro testing. Such limited testing is inconclusive. Use-specific comprehensive in vitro and in vivo testing, including clinical studies, and control of hazardous substances such as lipopolysaccharide and flagellins is needed to provide a solid basis for the characterization biocompatible for humans.

Abstract: This review reports on the huge potential of natural products (NPs) as drugs due to their pleiotropic activities and discusses the recent research and development of nanoscale drug delivery systems loaded with NPs. Indeed, the number of publications is dramatically increased in the last years and excellent biopharmaceutical properties of nanosized vectors loaded with NPs have been reported, however on the market the number of products based on nanoscale drug delivery systems are limited essentially to food supplements and cosmetics. The difficulties of NPs loaded nanovectors to reach the market as medicine is mainly due to the lack of dedicated regulatory frameworks, a specialized "nano" legal context. Instead, nanovectors are evaluated on a case-by-case basis under existing broad pharmaceutical regulations under traditional benefit/risk frameworks. This manuscript would be a comprehensive collection of the reviews on nanovectors loaded with some paradigmatic NPs, namely curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, thymoquinone, cannabidiol, and silybin, all developed to overcome their biopharmaceutical restrictions, mainly solubility and stability. The study highlights the challenges and limitations of the reported studies, evidencing in many cases the lack of complete knowledge of the mechanistic of nano–bio interactions, the lack of some basic requirements as the encapsulation efficiency and drug loading efficiency, as well as the very limited number of the clinical studies. Finally, NPs are presented as multifunctional excipients of nanovectors to improve nanocarrier structure, function and drug biopharmaceutical properties, mainly represented by ginseng and quillaja saponins, escin and glycyrrhizin to form micelles or vesicles such as escinosomes.

Abstract: This review presents a current understanding of the relationship between the structure of multicomponent metallic melts and the processes of amorphization and nanocrystallization. Particular attention is paid to the thermal-temporal treatment (TTT) of melts as a precision method for monitoring the nonequilibrium state of the liquid phase, the relaxation kinetics of cluster associations, and liquid-liquid transitions (LLT). The mechanisms by which precrystallization melt treatment affects the homogeneity of the amorphous precursor, the size of nanograins (7–15 nm), the phase composition (Fe₃Si, Fe₂B), and the resulting magnetic characteristics of toroidal cores (μ_max > 600,000, H_c < 0.5 A/m) are investigated. Based on an analysis of structural models of metallic melts (cybotactic, quasicrystalline, and quasichemical), it is shown that critical temperatures, viscosity hysteresis, and oscillatory relaxation serve as indicators of melt equilibrium. It is noted that the optimized TTT protocols combined with controlled annealing at 542–572°C enable the formation of Fe₃Si nanograins with exceptional magnetic softness. The obtained results open the possibility of discussing the prospects for integrating TTT with in situ diagnostics, CALPHAD modeling, and the potential of machine learning for the design of next-generation soft magnetic nanomaterials with tailored frequency characteristics for high-frequency power electronics and their use in electromagnetic shielding.

Abstract: Transition metal phosphides (TMPs) have gained significant attention from researchers in the field of catalytic hydrogenation due to their excellent properties. However, existing studies rarely explored the targeted regulation of the degree of crystal plane exposure of the Ni₁₂P₅ catalyst. It is difficult to significantly enhance the performance of this catalyst in the hydrogenation dechlorination (HDC) reaction of trichloroethylene by this strategy. This study proposes a regulatory approach: changing the ratio of ethylene glycol to water to precisely control the exposure ratio of the high-index (312) crystal plane of the Ni₁₂P₅ catalyst. Combined with the performance tests of trichloroethylene hydrogenation dechlorination at different reaction temperatures, the intrinsic relationship between the step atoms generated during the formation of the (312) crystal plane and the active sites of the catalyst was clarified. The study also utilized multiple characterization methods such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to conduct a comprehensive property analysis of the prepared catalytic materials.

Abstract: Surface roughness at the nanometer scale limits the optical performance of reflective components for X-ray and extreme ultraviolet beam shaping. While sub-nanometer roughness can be achieved by polishing planar substrates, it remains challenging for con-tinuous three-dimensional topographies fabricated by grayscale direct-write lithography in polymer resists. In this work, mm-long linear grayscale slopes are introduced as a cali-bration platform to distinguish between form, waviness, and roughness contributions. Process optimization reduces artefacts such as gray-value discretization and stitching, while replication into PMMA combined with the TASTE process enables a reduction of intrinsic roughness below 2 nm. Laser scanning confocal and atomic force microscopy are used as complementary techniques to assess surface quality across spatial scales. The re-sults provide insight into the origin of roughness in novolak-based resists and its evolu-tion through the fabrication chain, highlighting material limitations and paths toward smooth polymer optics.

Abstract: Hydrolates are aqueous distillation byproducts generated during the production of essential oils from aromatic and medicinal plants. Although historically considered low-value residual streams, they contain water-compatible volatile and semi-volatile compounds, including oxygenated terpenes, phenolic derivatives, alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones, which may support antimicrobial, antioxidant, and complementary biological activities. This review critically examines hydrolates as sustainable phytochemical platforms for nano-enabled applications in food preservation, active packaging, and agriculture. Particular attention is given to the relationship between hydrolate composition, biological activity, technological limitations, and formulation strategies. The current evidence indicates that hydrolates should not be interpreted as diluted essential oils, but rather as chemically distinct aqueous systems with specific advantages, including compatibility with hydrophilic matrices, lower sensory intensity, and potential contribution to circular economy models. However, their practical application remains limited by compositional variability, low concentration of bioactive compounds, physicochemical and microbiological instability, lack of standardized production and characterization protocols, and limited validation under real application conditions. Nano-enabled systems, including nanoemulsions, liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanogels, thermoresponsive matrices, and active films or coatings, may improve hydrolate stability, retention, controlled release, and functional performance. Nevertheless, hydrolate-specific evidence remains scarce, and many current perspectives are still extrapolated from studies on essential oils, plant extracts, or isolated natural compounds. Future research should prioritize quantitative bioactivity assessment, stability studies, realistic food and agricultural models, safety evaluation, scalability, regulatory planning, and sustainability analysis. Overall, hydrolate valorization through nano-enabled strategies represents a promising but still emerging pathway for transforming aqueous distillation byproducts into functional systems for sustainable applications.

Abstract: High-efficiency energy sources for electric vehicles and portable electronic devices require advanced lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high energy density, superior power capability, and long-term cycling stability. Among the various components of LIBs, the cathode material plays a pivotal role in determining the electrochemical performance, safety, and commercial viability of the battery. To meet the growing demands of modern applications, cathode materials must combine high capacity with structural stability, thermal safety, cost-effectiveness, and excellent rate capability. This article reviews the most widely used cathode materials with layered and spinel structures. Their key advantages and inherent limitations are discussed in detail, together with strategies aimed at improving their performance through elemental doping and surface coating approaches. In addition, the review summarizes facile, scalable, and cost-effective synthesis methods for these cathode materials and highlights advances characterization techniques employed to achieve a deeper understanding of their nanostructured features and electrochemical behavior.

Abstract: Plant-mediated biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles is an environmentally friendly, sustainable, and green strategy for the fabrication of nanomaterials, which can be used as an alternative to conventional methods such as physical and chemical reduction techniques. Rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, proteins, and other bioactive components, plants act as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agents simultaneously to synthesize nanoparticles with mild reaction conditions and environmentally friendly reagents. In this review, recent advances in plant-originated biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles are highlighted, focusing on silver (Ag), gold (Au), and copper (Cu) nanoparticles. The mechanisms for plant-mediated nanoparticle biosynthesis, including the processes of bioreduction, nucleation, growth, and stabilization, are discussed in detail, along with the effects of key parameters during synthesis on the morphology and physicochemical properties of metal nanoparticles. Both extract-mediated and direct biomass-mediated biosynthesis routes for metal nanoparticles are discussed in detail. The advantages of these two biosynthesis approaches on the control of size and shape of metal nanoparticles, including the control of crystallinity and the advanced architectures of anisotropic nanostructures and metal/carbon hybrids, are compared. In addition, the major applications of plant-derived metal nanoparticles in antibacterial and anticancer therapy, environmental catalysis, and emerging electronic devices are summarized. The synergistic effects of phytochemical corona on biological activity, catalytic activity, and functional stability of metal nanoparticles are discussed in detail. Finally, the current challenges in this field and commercialization are analyzed and future research directions toward the rational design and industrial application of plant-derived nanomaterials are proposed.

Abstract: The metal oxide nanoparticles have been the subject of intense research interest because of their remarkable physicochemical properties such as high surface area, particle size tunability, outstanding chemical stability, optical activity, catalytic efficiency, and antimicrobial behavior. These properties make them very useful in environmental, biomedical, energy, sensing, agricultural and industrial applications. The synthesis method is important to control the morphology, crystallinity, surface charge, band gap and overall performance of metal oxide nanoparticles. They have been prepared by various physical, chemical and biological means such as solgel, co-precipitation, hydro/solvothermal, microwave assisted, sonochemical, combustion and green synthesis. Of these, the green synthesis is gaining more interest as it employs plant extract, microorganisms, and other biological materials as reducing agents, stabilizing agents and capping agents that make the process more eco-friendly and cost-effective.Recent advancements in the synthesis and application of metal oxide nanoparticles are discussed. It emphasizes major synthesis routes, main factors that influence the formation of nanoparticles, characterization techniques and structure–property relationships. A special focus is on the influence of synthesis parameters like type of precursor, pH, temperature, reaction time, solvents and capping agents on the properties of nanoparticles. In addition, the uses of metal oxide nanoparticles in photocatalysis, wastewater treatment, antimicrobial activity, drug delivery, biosensing, energy storage, gas sensing, and agriculture are also included. Finally, present challenges, toxicity issues, problems of large-scale production, and future research directions are discussed, to support the practical and sustainable use of metal oxide nanoparticles.

Abstract: Graphene oxide (GO) is a key precursor of functionalized graphene materials and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), but its wider use is limited by difficulties in obtaining materials with reproducible composition, controlled oxidation degree and low post-reaction impurity content. This study compares two purification routes for GO obtained by a modified Hummers method. After synthesis, the post-reaction mixture was divided into two parts: one was purified conventionally in acidic HCl medium (GO-HCl), whereas the other was neutralized with KOH, washed with water and finally treated with HCl to remove Mn2+ and K+ ions (GO-KOH). KOH-assisted purification reduced the number of washing cycles from 18 to 5. WAXS/XRD, SEM/EDS, XPS, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, DSC and TGA showed that GO-KOH sedimented faster, formed a powder after drying, contained less sulfur (0.27 vs. 0.55 at.%), had a higher C/O ratio (2.01 vs. 1.57), a lower Raman ID/IG ratio (1.62 vs. 1.88), and a lower oxygen-group removal enthalpy (521 vs. 1080 J g-1). Sequential pH change is therefore an effective tool for shortening GO purification and controlling its properties.

Abstract: Heavy metal contamination in water resources poses a significant environmental and public health challenge due to its toxicity, persistence, and bio accumulative nature. This study investigates the potential of molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) nanoparticles as an efficient adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions. MoS₂ nanoparticles were synthesized and characterized using appropriate analytical techniques to evaluate their structural and surface properties. Batch adsorption experiments were conducted to assess the removal efficiency of selected heavy metal ions under varying conditions, including pH, contact time, initial metal concentration, and adsorbent dosage. The results demonstrated that MoS₂ nanoparticles exhibit a high adsorption capacity owing to their large surface area, layered structure, and abundance of active adsorption sites. The removal efficiency increased with optimized pH and contact time, achieving significant reductions in heavy metal concentrations. Adsorption behavior was analyzed using kinetic and isotherm models, indicating favourable adsorption mechanisms. The findings suggest that MoS₂ nanoparticles are a promising, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly material for wastewater treatment and heavy metal remediation. This study contributes to the development of advanced nanomaterial-based technologies for improving water quality and protecting environmental and human health.

Abstract: This study evaluates the effect of the oxidation degree of graphene oxide, understood as the oxygen content and the presumed nature of oxygen-containing functional groups remaining after controlled thermal reduction of GO, on the cyclization of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) in composite PAN/GO membranes prepared by phase inversion. All composite membranes contained the same amount of graphene-based additive, namely 5 wt.% relative to dry PAN, which made it possible to separate the effect of additive loading from the effect of surface chemistry. The GO-based additives were prepared from one initial graphene oxide batch and then subjected to controlled thermal reduction to obtain materials with different oxygen contents. These values were 7.2, 15.3, 24.6, 35.4 and 48.1 wt.% for the additives used in PAN/GO-1, PAN/GO-2, PAN/GO-3, PAN/GO-4 and PAN/GO-5, respectively. DSC analysis showed that, in the PAN/GO-2-PAN/GO-5 series, the maximum temperature of the exothermic PAN cyclization effect decreased from 294 °C to 224 °C as the oxygen content increased. At the same time, the cyclization enthalpy decreased from 506.7 to 404.2 J/g. In contrast, PAN/GO-1, containing the most strongly reduced additive with 7.2 wt.% oxygen, showed the highest cyclization maximum, approximately 316 °C, and the highest cyclization enthalpy, 628.5 J/g. FTIR spectra confirmed the disappearance of the nitrile band at approximately 2240 cm-1 and the growth of C=N/C=C bands assigned to the developing PAN ladder structure. The results indicate that PAN cyclization is governed not only by the total oxygen content but also by the type and reactivity of oxygen-containing groups remaining on the GO surface after thermal reduction.

Abstract: Industrial synthetic dyes represent a major source of water pollution because current treatment methods fail to remove them efficiently prior to discharge. Consequently, developing cost-effective and highly efficient technologies for wastewater systems is essential. Adsorption satisfies these demands and easily couples with other industrial effluent treatments. This study focuses on nanoporous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO), an outstanding adsorbent known for its versatility, high specific surface area, significant porosity, and thermal stability. Although the adsorption capacity of this nanoadsorbent has been recently studied, this work specifically evaluates the performance of AAO modified through different thermal and chemical treatments for the removal of Eriochrome Black T from aqueous solutions. Within a 1-h process, the applied treatments significantly enhanced AAO adsorption performance: standalone calcination and chemical etching led to a 10% increase in dye removal efficiency, while combining calcination with alkaline etching resulted in a 38% improvement. Furthermore, the combined treatment was demonstrated to enhance the adsorption process at alkaline pH levels (up to pH 10), and the modified AAO could be reused up to four times while maintaining a significantly high removal efficiency. Finally, this study provides key insights into the underlying phenomena governing the adsorption of anionic dyes onto AAO nanostructures.

Abstract: Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has emerged as a highly promising analytical technique for disease diagnostics due to its exceptional sensitivity, molecular specificity, and ability to detect a broad range of biomarkers in complex biological matrices. This review provides a comprehensive overview of gold- and silver-nanoparticle-based SERS platforms for plasma disease diagnostics, covering advances in plasmonic nanostructures, biological sample analysis, biomarker detection, and AI-driven spectral data processing. Particular emphasis is placed on the application of SERS to clinically relevant biofluids, especially plasma, where the technique has demonstrated considerable potential for detecting diseases such as cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurological conditions. The review also critically examines the major challenges currently limiting the clinical translation of SERS technologies. These include variability associated with substrate fabrication, matrix-induced signal fluctuations, limited interlaboratory reproducibility, and the lack of standardized protocols for spectral preprocessing and data analysis. Strategies proposed to address these issues are discussed, including comprehensive post-synthesis substrate characterization, optimization of biological sample preparation, advanced spectral preprocessing workflows, and the integration of machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms to improve diagnostic robustness and reproducibility. Collectively, the advances summarized in this review indicate that SERS-based diagnostic technologies are rapidly progressing beyond proof-of-concept studies toward clinically applicable systems. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration and standardization efforts will be essential to bridge the remaining gap between experimental SERS methodologies and routine clinical implementation.

Abstract: Background: Actinium-225 (²²⁵Ac) is receiving major attention as the radionuclide of choice for targeted alpha therapy (TAT) due to its outstanding physical properties such as a long physical half-life of 9.9 days and a short range of alpha (α)- particles which are responsible for the destruction of malignant tumours, whilst sparing normal surrounding tissues. Although the physical properties of ²²⁵Ac make it a desirable radionuclide for TAT, its application is challenging due to the lack of chelators available to stabilise its daughter radionuclides, resulting in the recoil effect. This occurs when there is a breakdown between the radionuclide and the chelator, therefore minimising the therapeutic effects of the radiopharmaceutical. Nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) may minimise the challenge of ²²⁵Ac’s recoiling daughters and increase tumour penetration. Aim: This study aimed at using poly(lactic-co-glycolic)acid (PLGA) and chitosan nanoparticles as a delivery vehicle for targeted alpha therapy of prostate cancer in order to increase the therapeutic effect of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA. Methods and Results: PLGA nanoparticles were prepared using a nanoprecipitation method, after which they were functionalised with chitosan and folic acid. Following synthesis of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA, the radiopharmaceutical was loaded onto the nanoparticles. SEM analysis and FTIR were performed for characterisation of the nanoparticles and in-vitro drug release of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA at pH= 6.5 and pH= 7.4, respectively was done. The nanoparticles prepared were an average size of 200nm and had a positive charge. This was further confirmed using a zetasizer and with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis. The PLGA-Chitosan nanoparticles indicated a high encapsulation efficiency after 24 hours. The results also showed a controlled release of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA over 72 hours. The results of this study indicate that PLGA-Chitosan nanoparticles are suitable for retaining ²²⁵Ac and its recoiling daughters (221Fr and 213Bi) at the tumour site, potentially increasing the therapeutic potential of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA. Conclusion: PLGA-Chitosan nanoparticles may be a suitable drug delivery vehicle of ²²⁵Ac PSMA617-TFA that can deliver into solid tumours and retain the recoiling daughters within the tumour site.

Abstract: The development of support for the immobilization of enzymes and yeasts is an important step in hydrolysis and fermentative processes, aiming to recover and reuse biocatalysts, thereby making the process of bioethanol production economically viable. In this study, we propose a core/shell support made of nanomagnets armed with Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells as a nanobiocatalyst for fermentative processes. We use orange biomass, a common waste in Brazil, for bioethanol production. The produced nanomagnets had a zeta potential of +28.0 ± 0.5 mV, were efficiently covered by silica and armed with -NH2 groups, and were duly characterized by infrared spectroscopy. The biomass after acid hydrolysis presented 10 ± 0.6 g L-1 of reducing sugars, which were quantified using the colorimetric method. An evaluation of fermentation conditions was carried out by varying temperature and pH. In the first condition, the achieved ethanol yield was 35-46% after 48 h of fermentation, while in the second condition, we obtained 48-90% ethanol, and in the third condition, 50-69.2%. The produced bioethanol was quantified through a chemical oxidation reaction. The immobilization process proved to be satisfactory with a reaction yield of around 25-30%.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: One of the ongoing clinical constraints is limiting microbial growth on facial and dental prostheses, justifying the need for material surface enhancements for reducing the associated microbial complications. This study aimed to investigate a clinically applicable and reproducible coating technique to overcome microbial clinical challenges. Methods: Ag nanoparticles (NPs) were applied to three types of facial materials through spray, spin, and dip coating techniques. Surface characterization, elemental composition, and chemical bond formation were assessed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, respectively. Subsequent optimization of spray numbers was performed. Antimicrobial performance was examined by agar diffusion, direct contact, and adhesion (time-dependent) assays, with different layers, against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Results: Spray coating exhibited superior coating uniformity compared with others. 15 sprays was determined as optimal number for a single layer coating. EDS confirmed Ag NP presence, FTIR revealed no chemical alteration of specimens. Disk diffusion tests showed no inhibition zones. Adhesion and direct contact tests displayed antibacterial activity, the effect of which was stronger for the latter. Time-dependent adhesion test of 1-layer coating of acrylic and silicone had a consistent decrease in bacterial amount, whilst zirconia had only a strong initial activity. In general, the 3-layer coating did not showcase an increased antimicrobial activity, suggesting that the increase in layering negatively impacts surface effectiveness. Conclusions: spray coating of Ag NPs can provide a promising, clinically-applicable, large-scale manufacturing strategy for improving dental and facial material antibacterial qualities without altering the inherent prosthetic properties.

Abstract: Electrospinning is a relatively easy and perspective method for producing polymeric, ceramic, and composite fibers, which may vary from several nanometers to several micrometers. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a water-soluble, non-toxic, and biocompatible polymer with good mechanical properties, making it widely used for electrospinning. In this study, the influence of PVA solution concentration, applied voltage, tip-to-collector distance, and needle size on the morphology and diameter of the obtained fibers was investigated in order to optimize the conditions for the production of bead-free nanofibers. For this purpose, PVA solutions with different concentrations (5, 7.5, and 10 wt.%) were prepared and electrospun by altering the parameters of the process. Fiber morphology and diameter distribution as a function of the studied parameters were evaluated by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results demonstrated a strong dependence of fiber morphology on solution viscosity. At low concentration (5 wt.%), fibers with numerous bead defects were obtained. Increasing the concentration to 7.5 wt.% led to a significant reduction in bead defect. Further increasing the concentration up to 10 wt.% led to the production of smooth and homogeneous fibers under the optimized conditions. A non-linear relationship between fiber diameter and tip-to-collector distance was observed, with an optimal distance of 140 mm yielding the thinnest and most uniform fibers. Additionally, needle diameter was found to influence both fiber size and process stability. Smaller needle diameters (G22) enabled the production of finer fibers (~180 nm), but with increased sensitivity to processing conditions, whereas larger diameters (G20–G21) provided more stable jet behavior and narrower diameter distributions. The statistical analysis ANOVA confirmed these findings. The study provides useful insights for optimizing electrospinning parameters to obtain high-quality, bead-free PVA nanofibers.

Abstract: Oral drug delivery remains the most preferred route of administration; however, traditional oral dosage forms face several limitations, including low bioavailability, enzymatic degradation, poor permeability, and lack of site-specific drug release. Recent advances in nanotechnology have introduced nanoparticles as promising drug carriers capable of overcoming these challenges. Eudragit-based nanoparticles have demonstrated great potential in enhancing drug stability, controlling release profiles, and improving site-specific targeting in the gastrointestinal tract. These polymethacrylate copolymers exhibit pH-dependent solubility, mucoadhesive properties, and tuneable drug-loading capacities, making them highly suitable for advanced oral formulations. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of Eudragit®-based nanoparticulate systems for oral drug delivery, discussing their formulations, physicochemical properties, and mechanisms of controlled drug release. Emphasis is placed on controlled-release strategies, targeted delivery, and the impact of polymeric materials in optimising therapeutic outcomes. By exploring these aspects, this review aims to highlight the potential of Eudragit-based nanoparticles as a robust platform for improving oral drug bioavailability and efficacy.