Biology and Life Sciences

Abstract: The Neotropical fish family Erythrinidae includes widespread predatory species whose diversity and evolutionary relationships remain incompletely understood, and previous molecular studies suggest that its currently recognized diversity of 20 species is underestimated. Here, we assessed molecular diversity and phylogenetic relationships across Erythrinidae using the COI gene and analyzed 1,071 sequences from 410 localities in 11 countries, encompassing the major Neotropical hydrographic basins. Barcode Index Number (BIN) assignments and maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses recovered 53 molecular lineages, comprising 52 public and one private BIN. Fifteen BINs were associated with valid species, either unambiguously or through assignments based on type localities, whereas 23 represented putative new species and 14 could not be assigned taxonomic identities because of limited lineage representation, non-monophyly, or the absence of reference material. Most molecular diversity was concentrated in Hoplias, with 44 lineages. Phylogenetic analyses supported the monophyly of Erythrinidae and its three genera and identified three major species groups within Hoplias: H. malabaricus, H. lacerdae, and H. “Panama”. Lineage richness was unevenly distributed among biogeographic units, with the Amazon Basin harboring the highest diversity. These results provide a continental molecular framework and baseline for future integrative taxonomic revisions within Erythrinidae.

Abstract: Increased phylogenomic sampling and availability of thousands of high-quality genome assemblies require tools to simultaneously analyze changes to both chromosomal and sub-chromosomal genome architecture. Recently, we proposed an Evolutionary Genome Topology (EGT) approach to identify and associate genome structural changes with evolutionary transitions. In this Application Note, we provide a generalized implementation of this approach, which we call EGTool. EGTool compares genomes to each other (multigenome topology) or loci to each other across genomes (multilocus topology), accepts arbitrary positional and orthology inputs, works in base-pair or index coordinates, projects new genomes onto an existing embedding without refitting, and recovers the features that characterize any chosen region of the projection via inverse transform. A 510-genome, 1,274 locus example is included to illustrate these functionalities and can be run on a laptop within 30 minutes.

Abstract: The Marshall complex—defined here as the integrated structure comprising the vein of Marshall (VOM), the vestigial fold, and their associated myocardial bundles and autonomic innervation—has re-emerged as a clinically relevant substrate for atrial fibrillation (AF). Historically described as a fibrous remnant, accumulating anatomical and electrophysiological evidence indicates that the neuromuscular elements invested around the VOM can act as triggers, modulators and, in susceptible atria, contributors to re-entrant activity. This article addresses an anatomical paradox: why can regression of the embryonic left-sided cardinal venous system leave behind an arrhythmogenic remnant, whereas persistence as a left-sided caval channel, as in persistent left superior vena cava, does not consistently translate into a dominant population-level AF signal? We propose that the Marshall complex may exemplify a time-limited evolutionary optimum, a pattern we term “shrewd degeneration.” Integrating contemporary embryological descriptions of venous remodelling with life-history theory, we hypothesize that left-sided venous regression can be viewed as a developmentally programmed simplification compatible with efficient early-life venous architecture. Its consequence is a small, phenotypically variable neuromuscular remnant that is usually clinically silent but may become arrhythmogenic after a “second hit” of atrial remodelling in the setting of ageing and modern cardiovascular exposures, including hypertension, obesity and metabolic dysfunction. Within this framework, Marshall-targeted strategies in AF can be interpreted not only as lesion delivery but also as targeted local modification of a latent anatomical vulnerability that becomes clinically relevant later in life. Importantly, this evolutionary interpretation is hypothesis-generating rather than evidence of the selective history of the Marshall complex itself. It yields testable translational predictions, including whether variation in “Marshall load,” assessed by mapping or imaging signatures, is associated with AF burden or differential response to Marshall-targeted therapy, and whether autonomic remodelling after Marshall modification contributes to rhythm outcomes. The Marshall complex may therefore provide a tractable model for testing how developmental anatomy, life-history constraints and contemporary intervention intersect in cardiovascular disease.

Abstract: Cladophialophora is a melanized fungal genus that includes environmental, transitional, and clinically relevant lineages, yet its diversity in tropical montane soils remains poorly understood. In this study, ITS2 metabarcoding was used to investigate Cladophialophora diversity in five soil samples collected along an altitudinal gradient (0-3015 m a.s.l) in the Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala. From a total of 2,848 fungal ASVs obtained from soil samples, 38 were assigned to Cladophialophora and analyzed through UNITE-based taxonomic assignment, maximum-likelihood phylogenetic reconstruction, lineage classification, abundance profiling, and exploratory multivariate analyses. The recovered ASVs clustered predominantly within an environmental clade, whereas transitional, basal, and clinically affiliated clades were represented by fewer ASVs and lower relative abundances. Eleven phylogenetically defined lineages were recognized, with the C. floridana lineage being the most widespread and abundant, followed by the transitional C. lanosa lineage. ASVs affiliated with the C. bantiana clinical lineage were detected at low abundance and were restricted to a warmer zone of Zacapa. Overall, these findings provide the first metabarcoding-based and phylogenetically informed characterization of Cladophialophora in Guatemala and Sierra de las Minas soils and establish a baseline for future ecological and taxonomic studies.

Abstract: As in many areas of science, microbiome research is rarely purely curiosity-driven as funding structures, historical inequities, and global scientific trends often shape which questions are tested and which go unexamined. In African contexts, this can result in misalignment between local health challenges and global directions of microbiome research, contributing to the persistence of helicopter science. Through a structured review of African-relevant literature, we examined the distribution of mycobiome and virome research across host environments and regions, and what it reveals about research priorities.Strong domain-host specialisation was observed: mycobiome studies were concentrated in plants and environmental systems, while virome studies were concentrated in humans, animals, and insect-vectors. The most common combinations were human-associated virome studies and plant-associated mycobiome studies. While bacteriome–mycobiome studies were prevalent, integrated virome studies and investigations linking environmental microbiomes to clinical outcomes were comparatively rarer. While biologically intuitive, this highlights critical gaps for African health needs. Climate change and urbanization are expected to increase the risk of opportunistic thermotolerant fungal pathogens, suggesting an urgent need for One-Health-based mycobiome surveillance that bridges plant, soil, animal, and human interfaces, rather than treating them as separate domains. Similarly, the post-COVID-19 pandemic landscape underscores the value of virome monitoring as an early-warning system across multiple reservoirs.Author affiliation patterns indicate that only half of the studies were African-led, with an uneven distribution across the continent and gaps in data from West African and Southern African countries (except for South Africa). Most literature remains focused on descriptive taxonomic or genomic characterisation rather than functional or translational outcomes. Aligning microbiome research with local priorities means moving beyond simply cataloguing biodiversity. It requires long-term, community-based surveillance, along with continued investment in regional capacity, data sovereignty, and training. Re-orienting microbiome research around locally led One Health agendas could help transform neglected microbiota into evidence that informs public-health priorities.

Abstract: The median conical process on the male fifth tergite of tachinid flies is a sexually dimorphic, homologous morphological character exhibiting stable continuous gradation; it reliably discriminates interspecific divergence and reconstructs evolutionary relationships. This study focuses on morphological evolution of the fifth tergite conical process in Dolichocoxys. A four state ordered character coding scheme (0-3) was formulated following the natural gradual evolutionary trajectory: flat tergite without projection > low obtuse bulge > short cone > slender elongated cone. Using standardized morphological grading criteria, we constructed a dichotomous identification key for all known male Dolichocoxys species. A deterministic morphological phylogenetic topology was further reconstructed under the logical framework of homologous gradient differentiation. Our results reveal a consistent unidirectional gradual evolutionary trend from plesiomorphic to highly apomorphic states. D. brevis, bearing the ancestral character state, is the basal species of the genus; D. rossica represents the transitional morphotype; D. flavibasis + D. femoralis form a moderately specialized clade, whereas D. obscurus and D. wangi compose the most derived sister group. The present work elucidates homologous evolutionary patterns of modified abdominal terminal structures within Dolichocoxys, provides robust morphological evidence for species delimitation and interspecific phylogenetic relationships, and supplements fundamental data on morphological evolution for the family Tachinidae.

Abstract: Distributional gaps in poorly documented Neotropical mammals often reflect the combined effects of ecological filtering, low detectability, taxonomic uncertainty, and incomplete sampling. We reassessed the documented distribution of L. brachyotis (Dobson, 1879), a rarely collected forest-dwelling phyllostomid bat, using an expanded occurrence dataset and specimen-based validation. Independently, we used ecological niche models to characterize climatic suitability under current and paleoclimatic conditions. We compiled 125 documentary or specimen records from published sources and museum material, including new voucher-based records from southern Ecuador and northern Colombia, and consolidated them into 121 reviewed unique locality-coordinate units. After environmental screening and cell-level deduplication, 115 unique presence cells were used for model calibration. The best-supported model used linear, quadratic, and hinge features with a regularization multiplier of 2.5 and performed significantly better than null-model expectations. Under current conditions, climatic suitability was broad but spatially heterogeneous across northern South America, with additional suitable areas in Mesoamerica, the Andean–Amazonian in-terface, central Brazil, and southeastern Brazil. Temporal projections identified recurrent areas of climatic suitability across northern South America, but were interpreted as climatic context rather than direct evidence of historical occupancy or demographic continuity. The new records indicate that the documented distribution remains incomplete along its margins. Our results support a revised interpretation of L. brachyotis as a rarely recorded humid-forest bat with a coherent Amazonian–Guianan core and peripheral extensions consistent with the combined influence of climatic suitability, habitat heterogeneity, and incomplete sampling.

Abstract: The nearly neutral theory predicts that mildly deleterious mutations persist transiently within populations before being removed by purifying selection. During the past three decades, studies across diverse taxa, including humans, mammals, viruses, bacteria, and other vertebrates, have consistently reported a temporal pattern showing a higher proportion of deleterious variants at short timescales compared to that observed at long timescales. The elevated ratios of nonsynonymous-to-synonymous diversity (dN/dS), enrichment of deleterious variants among rare and young alleles, higher proportions of deleterious mutations in terminal branches of phylogenetic trees, and time-dependent variation in molecular evolutionary rates all support the progressive removal of harmful mutations by purifying selection. These observations have important implications for molecular evolution, phylogenetic inference, phylogeography and divergence-time estimation, particularly where recent evolutionary timescales are considered. This review synthesises evidence from population genetics, phylogenomics and molecular evolutionary studies to provide a unified perspective on the temporal dynamics of deleterious mutations. We discuss how these patterns arise from the interaction between genetic drift and purifying selection and their consistency with the predictions of the nearly neutral theory. Finally, we highlight recent advances in modeling purifying selection, particularly in viral evolutionary studies, identify outstanding questions, and propose future research directions for understanding the temporal behaviour of deleterious mutations across genomes and evolutionary timescales.

Abstract: Tropical Amazonian forests serve as critical carbon reservoirs, although their storage capacity varies significantly depending on the topographic, hydrologic, and successional heterogeneity of the landscape. This study quantified aboveground biomass (AGB) and carbon stocks across four vegetation units in the Tacshitea sector, Sierra del Divisor Na-tional Park (Peru): semi-dense flooded forest (Z1), hill forest (Z2), hill forest associated with secondary growth (Z3), and Mauritia flexuosa palm forest (Z4). We established 100 plots of 20 × 20 m (1 ha per zone), assessing all individuals with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 10 cm using allometric equations validated for Amazonian ecosystems. A total of 2,363 individuals belonging to 158 species from 41 families were recorded. AGB varied sig-nificantly among vegetation units (Kruskal-Wallis, p < 0.001), with the highest values in Z1 (414.09 Mg ha⁻¹; 194.62 Mg C ha⁻¹) and Z2 (332.01 Mg ha⁻¹; 156.05 Mg C ha⁻¹), whereas Z3 and Z4 recorded substantially lower values (145.27–153.18 Mg ha⁻¹; 68.28–71.99 Mg C ha⁻¹). The Fabaceae family dominated carbon storage at the landscape scale (33.82%). Floristic diversity showed positive but weak associations with carbon storage (R² = 0.045–0.056), and this relationship lost significance when controlling for spatial structure using linear mixed-effects models (p = 0.409), indicating that structural attributes—particularly basal area and wood density—are more robust predictors of storage capacity than taxo-nomic richness per se. Beta diversity analysis revealed that floristic differentiation among zones was dominated by species turnover, explaining 26.5% of the variation by vege-tation unit (PERMANOVA, F = 11.55; p = 0.001). These results support the relevance of Sierra del Divisor National Park as a priority carbon sink in the western Peruvian Amazon and underscore the necessity of conservation strategies that integrate the structural heterogeneity of the forest mosaic.

Abstract: Vultures are far more than carrion-eaters. This review looks at how they are physiologically equipped to safely digest decomposing flesh, how quickly they can clear a carcass from the landscape, and how feeding habits differ from one species to the next. It also revisits the diclofenac poisoning crisis that devastated South Asia's vulture populations, along with its surprising knock-on effects for disease spread and human health, before closing with the main threats vultures face today and what can realistically be done about them. Every day in nature, large numbers of animals die, leaving carcasses behind. These carcasses are a natural part of the flow of matter and energy through ecosystems. How long a carcass remains in the environment depends on many factors, including temperature, humidity, the size of the carcass, and the presence and density of the organisms that feed on it. Organisms that consume carrion play an important role in this process, and among them, vultures are one of the most specialized bird groups when it comes to exploiting animal carcasses.

Abstract: Leeches are classic animal-derived traditional Chinese medicines for activating blood circulation and eliminating blood stasis. The hematophagous leech Hirudinaria manillensis and non-hematophagous leech Whitmania pigra are the two most widely used medicinal leeches, yet the molecular mechanisms accounting for their divergent pharmacological effects remain unclear. Current research on leeches mainly focuses on anticoagulation and thrombolysis, lacking systematic cross-species and multi-population analyses of the HMEI family, the core gene set responsible for leech anti-inflammatory activity. In this work, we collected head salivary gland tissues from five geographical populations of each leech species. We performed RNA-Seq high-throughput sequencing to obtain gene expression values. Combining phylogenetic analysis, multiple nonparametric statistical tests and data visualization, we systematically characterized the evolutionary patterns of the HMEI family, interspecies transcriptional divergence and population-level expression plasticity. Our results showed that HMEI genes from the two leech species interlaced to form eight monophyletic clades, including clades conserved in both species and clades unique to each species. Although total transcript abundance of the HMEI family exhibited no significant interspecies difference, the two species adopted obviously different transcriptional patterns. H. manillensis relies on ultra-high expression of core gene paralogs, while W. pigra exerts biological functions through coordinated moderate expression of multiple gene copies. Gene expression varied significantly across geographical populations. The Hainan Ding’an population of H. manillensis and Jiangxi Ji’an population of W. pigra presented the highest overall HMEIs expression levels. Three core highly expressed anti-inflammatory genes were identified: HMEI_Hman06 and HMEI_Hman15 from H. manillensis, and HMEI_Wpig01 from W. pigra. This study confirmed that the HMEI family undergoes adaptive evolution via retention of ancestral conserved paralogs and lineage-specific gene duplication. Feeding habit divergence drives transcriptional reprogramming within the HMEI family, which serves as the core molecular factor leading to distinct anti-inflammatory efficacy between the two leech species. Geographical environments further modulate the plasticity of gene expression. This research improves the molecular theoretical framework of leech anti-inflammatory active substances, screens high-potential medicinal functional genes, and provides transcriptomic evidence for developing novel leech-derived anti-inflammatory protein drugs, evaluating medicinal leech germplasm, and standardizing the quality of leech herbal medicines.

Abstract: Leeches possess significant medicinal value in antithrombotic therapy, and elucidating their population genetic background is of great importance for the conservation of medicinal germplasm resources and the development of pharmaceutical applications. In this study, mitochondrial genes were used as molecular markers to systematically investigate the population genetic characteristics of wild Whitmania pigra populations from 13 regions across China. A total of 137 individuals were sequenced for three mitochondrial genes (COI, Cytb, and ND1), yielding a concatenated alignment of 3,554 bp with 441 variable sites detected. Genetic diversity analyses revealed that all populations exhibited high haplotype diversity (Hd > 0.5) and low nucleotide diversity (Pi < 0.02), suggesting that the species has experienced historical bottlenecks followed by rapid demographic expansion and mutation accumulation. Haplotype networks, phylogenetic trees, and population structure analyses consistently supported the division of the 13 geographic populations into three significantly differentiated groups: a genetically distinctive northeastern group (HLJ), a southern group (JXJA, JSTZ, HNYY, HBWH), and a northern–central group (TJ, SDLY, SDZZ, AHBB, HBZX). Among these, the HLJ population exhibited extremely high genetic differentiation from all others (FST ranging from 0.902 to 0.977), indicating that it likely represents an independent Evolutionarily Significant Unit (ESU). Bayesian Skyline Plot analysis reconstructed four phases of population demographic history, closely matching climatic fluctuation events since the Late Pleistocene, demonstrating that glacial–interglacial cycles have profoundly influenced population size changes in this species. Our findings provide a critical scientific basis for the conservation and sustainable utilization of W. pigra genetic resources, and lay a theoretical foundation for formulating targeted conservation strategies.

Abstract: Plastic pollution has generated a novel anthropogenic habitat, the plastisphere, where microorganisms colonize and establish complex biofilms on the surfaces of synthetic polymers. Although considerable progress has been made in describing plastisphere microbial diversity, the ecological mechanisms linking community assembly, microbial communication, and polymer biodegradation remain poorly understood, particularly in saline ecosystems. Here, we review current knowledge on plastisphere formation in marine, estuarine, hypersaline, and other saline environments, emphasizing the ecological roles of quorum sensing (QS), halotolerant fungi, and microbial interactions in regulating biofilm development and microplastic degradation. We discuss how environmental factors characteristic of saline habitats, including osmotic stress, ultraviolet radiation, nutrient limitation, and high ionic strength, shape plastisphere succession and influence microbial physiology. Particular attention is given to halotolerant fungi, whose oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes—including laccases, peroxidases, cutinases, esterases, and lipases—complement bacterial metabolism during polymer transformation. We further examine recent evidence demonstrating that QS coordinates microbial attachment, extracellular polymeric substance production, biofilm maturation, extracellular enzyme secretion, and metabolic cooperation, thereby linking microbial communication with biodegradation efficiency. Based on current evidence, we propose an integrative ecological framework in which abiotic weathering, environmental filtering, quorum sensing, bacterial–fungal interactions, and extracellular enzymatic pathways constitute successive and interconnected processes governing plastisphere functioning in saline ecosystems. Finally, we identify major knowledge gaps and highlight future research priorities, including the integration of multi-omics approaches, synthetic microbial consortia, systems biology, and artificial intelligence for the discovery of novel plastic-degrading enzymes. By integrating microbial ecology, fungal biology, chemical communication, and environmental biotechnology, this review provides a systems-level perspective on the plastisphere and establishes a conceptual framework for understanding and enhancing microplastic biodegradation under saline conditions.

Abstract: Since its inception in the 19th century, the concept of ecology has continuously expanded in scope—from individual organisms to the biosphere—and deepened in focus, shifting from organism-environment interactions to the structures and functions of ecosystems. As an interdisciplinary concept prone to controversy and revision, ecology plays a pivotal role in advancing ecological civilization. However, the absence of a mechanism-based and time-appropriate definition has hindered the integration of cross-hierarchical research and the response to practical demands amid global environmental changes. This paper briefly reviews the origin and evolutionary context of the ecology concept and identifies the limitations of previous definitions. It then elaborates on the essence of ecology, and proposes an updated redefinition: Ecology explores the structures and functions (material cycling and energy flow) of the bio-hierarchy (total ecosystems), which is co-shaped by information-mediated feedback regulation between organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments, self-organization and structuralization, as well as human-nature coupling, and provides theoretical foundation and practical solutions for the harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature. Finally, the paper outlines future research directions centered on establishing a unified, cross-hierarchical ecological theoretical framework to support ecological civilization construction and global eco-environmental governance.

Abstract: Matter, energy, and information, on the one hand, and the interplay between natural selection and self-organization, on the other, have given rise to modules, which constitute the fundamental units of interaction, organization, and function, as well as the primary targets of natural selection throughout chemical, biological, and cultural evolution. Based on the forms of structural information that enable their emergence, modules can be classified into huit types: (a) chemical modules (l) genetic and epigenetic modules, (c) cell, (d) neural, (f) mental modules, (g) moduloma (m) and affordance modules (n). Through interactions among modules and between modules and their environment, semantic (meaningful) modular information emerges. It is this semantic information that enables modules to acquire and maintain stability as both physical and abstract entities. The emergence and persistence of both material and immaterial (abstract) modules occur only at a specific point in time, when structural information is matched with the corresponding energy. This relationship is described by the law of modular stability. Modules acquire and preserve stability when the structural information responsible for establishing the relationships among the elements of their structure, considered as systems, corresponds to the energy required to maintain those relationships, while semantic modular information reaches its maximum value. One of the principal implications of this law is that the creative role of natural selection and modular stability is expressed primarily during the first stage of module formation, when the module is established as a replicator, rather than during the second stage, when it functions as an interactor and its fitness is determined.

Abstract: The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a key crop for food security in Mexico, yet its genetic resources remain poorly characterized in rural areas with high agrobiodiversity. Using genotyping-by-sequencing, we assessed genetic diversity, population structure, and gene flow among wild populations (W), traditional landraces (L), and commercial varieties exchanged through local markets (M), contrasting these populations with a sample of improved varieties (I). We analyzed a total of 78 individuals and 18,951 neutral SNPs. Population analyses (sNMF, PCoA, Neighbor-Joining, AMOVA) revealed strong differentiation between wild populations and cultivated forms (landraces and markets) (Fst_L-W = 0.704 and Fst_M-W = 0.601), whereas landraces and market varieties were weakly differentiated (Fst_L-M = 0.059). Wild populations exhibited the highest genetic diversity, with the greatest proportion of polymorphic loci (%P_W = 56.6), expected heterozygosity (He_W = 0.49), and nucleotide diversity (πW = 0.55). Cultivated forms showed lower diversity across all parameters, although levels exceeded those previously reported for Guerrero and other Mexican regions. Gene flow was limited between wild and cultivated forms but high between landraces and market varieties (Nm_L-M = 7.877), highlighting the role of seed exchange networks in maintaining connectivity and diversity. These findings underscore the importance of conserving wild populations, landraces, and traditional seed systems to strengthen crop resilience and food security under climate change.

Abstract: Catching birds is a common and well-established practice that is valuable for research, management, conservation and animal welfare. The most appropriate technique varies among species, and some species can be particularly challenging to capture. Many studies of owls instead rely on vocal or visual observations alone because of the difficulty of capturing birds. Between 2019 and 2026, we successfully developed capture methods for three small Ninox species, the Norfolk Island Morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata), the Tasmanian Boobook (N. leucopsis), and the Christmas Island Hawk-owl (N. natalis). Hand-nets or mist-nets were successfully used for each species, with thermal scopes, bright narrow-beam headtorches, call broadcast and model decoys proving valuable in different study systems. We show that the most appropriate technique for catching small hawk-owls is context dependent, with successful capture relying on matching the technique to the ecology, behaviour and habitat of the target species. Careful interpretation of behavioural cues and the strategic use of supporting technologies further improves capture success.

Abstract: Microplastics are increasingly recognized not only as persistent pollutants but also as novel microbial habitats capable of influencing ecological processes across aquatic ecosystems. Although the plastisphere has been extensively described, its broader ecological significance remains poorly integrated within ecosystem theory. Here, we propose the Ecological Infrastructure Framework (EIF), in which colonized microplastics function as persistent mobile substrates that simultaneously provide habitat, maintain biological organization, connect previously isolated ecosystems and redistribute microbial communities together with their associated ecological functions. Within this framework, eco-corona formation, microbial succession and environmental selection act as hierarchical ecological filters that shape plastisphere assembly throughout transport. We further introduce the concept of ecological filter compression, whereby persistent mobile substrates simultaneously relax geographic dispersal barriers while strengthening deterministic ecological selection, promoting the dispersal of metabolically organized biofilm communities rather than isolated microbial cells. Extending this perspective beyond community ecology, we discuss how the redistribution of microbial functional potential may influence carbon cycling and ecosystem resilience through changes in microbial connectivity. By integrating eco-corona formation, ecological filtering, microbial succession, metacommunity theory and ecosystem functioning into a unified systems perspective, this review redefines the ecological role of colonized microplastics and generates explicit, testable predictions regarding microbial connectivity, biogeochemical cycling and ecosystem resilience.

Abstract:

Plant chemodiversity is generally evaluated through metabolite richness, relative abundance, compositional dissimilarity, and biosynthetic organization. However, these descriptors characterize chemical states without explicitly identifying which metabolites, chemical classes, or biosynthetic pathways gain or lose relative representation during transitions between states. Here, we introduce Chemical Game Theory, an operational framework in which metabolites are treated as elementary chemical strategies, biosynthetic pathways constitute higher-order strategies, and normalized chromatographic abundances define their frequencies within a mixture. Replicator-based equations are used to calculate realized chemical payoffs, which quantify the relative advantage or disadvantage of each strategy during compositional transitions. Shannon diversity describes metabolite-level coexistence, whereas the General Biosynthetic Diversity Index, GBDI, characterizes pathway allocation and intrapathway branching. The framework was applied to previously published GC-MS and GC-FID profiles of essential oils from leaves and four developmental stages of the reproductive organ of Piper mollicomum Kunth, sampled over five months. Leaves exhibited the greatest overall metabolite diversity and biosynthetic architectural complexity, while the reproductive stages followed distinct and temporally variable chemical trajectories. Replicator analysis identified stage-dependent changes in the relative performance of terpenoid, mixed, shikimate-derived, and other biosynthetic strategies. The terpenoid route was consistently favored during specific reproductive-stage transitions, whereas the mixed pathway showed recurrent relative decline. Chemical dominance, Shannon diversity, GBDI, and realized payoff therefore captured distinct but complementary dimensions of chemical organization. Chemical Game Theory provides a quantitative language for interpreting the redistribution of chemical investment across plant compartments and developmental states. In phytochemical and bioprospecting studies, the framework may support the rational selection of plant organs, developmental stages, and collection periods associated with high target-metabolite abundance, emerging chemical strategies, or expanded biosynthetic and structural space.

Abstract: New Zealand species have evolved with infrequent fires, the flora being described as non-fire adapted. Until recently there has been contradictory information in the liter-ature regarding the response of New Zealand indigenous species to fire, and little quantitative information on the resistance expressed in post-fire resprouting of New Zealand species. Following a grass fire at a site that had been planted we measured the resprouting ability of a range of native species frequently used in revegetation. Resprouting was exhibited in many of the trees and shrubs, adding to the database of plants that show this fire resistance trait. Resprouting was unexpected given that bark provides re-sistance to fire and develops with age and the plants were less than seven years old. Areas of regenerating native vegetation subjected to wildfire in New Zealand are fre-quently invaded by highly flammable, non-native species. Their presence contributes to what has been term a fire trap in which succession to old-growth native forest (and other habitats) is repeatedly reset. We discuss the potential of green firebreaks to es-cape this trap and conclude that such an escape will require the active engagement of all parties and the education of the volunteer workforce.