Abstract: Sexual dimorphism in morphological traits is widespread across animals and can result from differing life-history strategies, sex-specific competitive pressures, and ecological interactions, which may be influenced by habitat structure and complexity. For epifaunal organisms, e.g., amphipods that inhabit structurally diverse benthic habitats, the structure of the habitat plays a key role in mediating access to food, mate encounters, and refuge provision. Here, we explored patterns of variation in body size and gnathopod 2 ratio (gnathopod 2 length/body length) among amphipod species in different marine habitats. We focus on two amphipod species, Ampithoe ramondi and Caprella acanthifera, across four benthic habitat types: rhodolith beds, macroalgae- dominated reefs, seagrass meadows, and black coral forests. A. ramondi was present in all habitats except black coral forests, and males were significantly larger than females only in macroalgae-dominated reefs. Males also exhibited higher gnathopod ratios than females, increasing from macroalgae-dominated reefs to seagrass meadows and rhodolith beds. C. acanthifera was found in macroalgae-dominated reeds and black coral forests, where males were larger than females on average, but no significant habitat alterations were detected. Neither A. ramondi nor C. acanthifera was found in all four habitats. These results suggest that patterns of sexual dimorphism across coastal habitats are species-specific, with sexual selection operating more subtly in some taxa (e.g., C. acanthifera) than others, likely shaped by both habitat-specific ecological pressures and differences in life-history strategies. Expanding such analyses to more taxa and with balanced sampling across habitats and environmental gradients will offer deeper insight into how natural and sexual selection interact and inform how these dynamics may shift under changing climate regimes.

Abstract: We provide generalizations of the conventional logistic population dynamics models suitable for periodic breeders, such as migratory birds, occupying varied habitats during the breeding cycle. These models require separate density dependencies for the birth and death rates, which may be habitat specific. Some analytical functional forms for the density dependencies are discussed where the population controlling mechanisms are each characterized by a distinct carrying capacity and saturation power. Multiple mechanisms might be operative simultaneously with the smallest carrying capacity usually dominating, but subject to influence from the others. We compare the dynamics and applicability for corresponding continuous differential and discrete difference population models. Generally, the differential models are stable, but exhibit repetitive seasonal variations for periodic breeders. The inherent delays in the discrete models may yield instabilities for large birth rates, as is known for single habitats, and may lead to significant discrepancies from the differential models for periodic breeders. The discrete models are also applicable to the life cycles of metamorphic and spawning species with non-overlapping generations. Threshold effects are also considered.

Abstract: The root of the animal tree—whether sponges (Porifera) or ctenophores (Ctenophora) represent the earliest-branching lineage—remains a key unresolved question in evolutionary biology. This review synthesizes evidence from molecular sequences, rare genomic events, morphology, embryology, and paleontology. While molecular sequence data provide extensive coverage, they are susceptible to methodological errors and confounding evolutionary processes. Rare molecular events, such as chromosomal fusion-with-mixing, provide deeper resolution due to their low convergence potential and high irreversibility. Morphological and embryological traits, historically underestimated, benefit from advances in imaging and comparative gene expression. Fossil records, though direct, remain fragmentary and biased. To explain persistent conflicts among data types, we propose the concepts of a Resolution Limit and the Deep Basal Problem, which formalize why early divergences are so difficult to resolve. We introduce Highly Anti-Convergent and Highly Irreversible Marginal Instances (HACHIMIs) as a promising class of phylogenetic signals. In conclusion, while traditional datasets tend to support the Porifera-sister hypothesis, high-resolution data increasingly favor Ctenophora-sister. More broadly, this review argues that resolving deep phylogenies requires integrative methodological frameworks, not just more data.

Abstract: Climate change in Europe can influence the predator-prey interactions, a scarcely studied topic in birds. We examined relationships between the spring passage timing of the Eurasian Sparrow-hawk, a generalist peak predator, and its main bird prey species (Song Thrush, Blackbird, Chaf-finch, Great Tit, Robin). All six species were ringed daily during 26 March–15 May in 1982–2021 at the station Hel (N Poland). In 2024, we collected pluckings to identify Sparrowhawks’ bird prey. Sparrowhawks’ daily migration dynamics were correlated with those for the Song Thrush, Robin and Chaffinch. Sparrowhawks’ median (50%) dates of passage showed no multi-year trend, but large year-to-year changes, correlated with those of its prey, and with temperatures. Adult females and males migrated through Hel early after warm February and March at wintering grounds, re-spectively. Young males migrated early during warm Aprils at Hel. Median dates were positively correlated between adult males and Robins, and adult females and Blackbirds. This suggests that Sparrowhawks adjust their migration timing each spring to the availability of their prey, with some sex differences, as males are smaller than females. Identifying changes in predator-prey dy-namics for Sparrowhawk in response to climate change is crucial to understanding its effect on forest ecosystems.

Abstract: Effective wolf monitoring is more critical than ever to support robust population estimates, identify breeding packs, and anticipate and mitigate attacks on livestock. This study evaluates bioacoustic monitoring to estimate wolf population size and detect packs and pups by howling activity, using recordings collected from free-ranging wolves in four different study areas in Denmark and from captive wolves housed in two zoos. It assesses whether howl structure can identify wild individuals and discriminate between current year-pups (aged between four and nine months) and adults. At one wild Location 1, we identified two free-ranging individuals from 40 adult howls by quantifying fundamental-frequency features and applying linear discriminant and multivariate variance analyses; individual classification accuracy was 92%. In captivity, the same workflow yielded 84% accuracy for three wolves at Location 5 and 86% for four wolves at Location 6, including perfect classification for one animal. We examined howls recorded from late August 2021 to February 2022 using maximum fundamental frequency. Across months, mixture modelling and principal component analysis consistently resolved two groups in the wild data, and multivariate tests indicated significant separation each month (p < 0.001), consistent with a pup–adult contrast and the expected autumnal decline in pup frequencies as they mature. A focused analysis restricted to adult-range howls also resolved two groups with very strong multivariate separation (p < 0.001), in line with female–male differences. Overall, passive bioacoustics is an effective, non-invasive approach for wide-area coverage and for inferring pack composition from acoustic evidence alone.

Abstract: Information on the breeding of the Pinto’s Spinetail Synallaxis infuscata, an endangered Brazilian Furnariid, is scarce. This study aims to complement it, by looking at nest and clutch parameters, breeding period, and nest success. Once nests were found, they were closely monitored from a hide. Between 1986 and 2018, 33 nests were found in the Pedra Talhada Forest near Quebrangulo. Nests were found year-round, except in middle of the dry season. Nests were of the closed/retort type, weighing 552.1 g, and measuring 37.6 x 28.8 cm, with a side arm of 30.6 x 4.9 cm., on average. The clutch size averaged 2.10 eggs, which measured 22.3 x 17.2 mm and weighed 3.2 g. They were white and had an oval to pointed-oval shape. Mean incubation period was 21.5 days and mean nestling period 14.71 days. The apparent nest success was 27.3%, while Mayfield’s was 21.8%. Predation was the main cause of nest failure, accounting for 81% of cases. The breeding data we collected on S. infuscata falls within the range of observations of a comprehensive analysis on other Synallaxis species. This breeding information is important for conservation, as rates of nest loss are a key factor in evaluating population viability.

Abstract: Prospecting for a future breeding site is an essential component of informed natal and breeding dispersal. It allows individuals to reduce the uncertainty of their environment by gathering personal and social information about the local quality of alternative breeding areas, and make informed emigration and settlement decisions. Although this process has been studied in territorial and social animal species for decades, it is still understudied and not well-understood. Using 124 empirical studies which have explicitly described prospecting in a context of breeding habitat selection in birds, mammals, fish and invertebrates, I review why, how, when and which individuals prospect according to various life history traits and sociality. Multiple classes of individuals were identified prospecting and they do so at different times of the year, depending on whether they immediately use the information gathered for settling in a new breeding area or delay it for a future breeding season. Spatial patterns and occurrence of prospecting were hard to generalize over taxa or even species due to substantial intra and inter-specific variability. From this synthesis, I identify persisting knowledge gaps related with the different spatial and temporal scales involved with prospecting and provide key objectives and research directions. I notably propose to examine prospecting at the interface of movement and behavioural ecology. This will be possible by combining different methodologies including tracking and biologging devices, field monitoring surveys and experimental approaches. Overall, a better understanding of the spatial and behavioural processes underlying prospecting will significantly enhance our ability to predict species responses to environmental changes and inform more effectively management plans for threatened species.

Abstract:

The epicuticle of Cataglyphis niger is endowed with hydrocarbons comprising both linear and branched alkanes. The linear alkanes create an impermeable layer that protects the ants from desiccation, whereas the branched alkanes have communicative roles. Studies of the biosynthesis of both classes of hydrocarbons revealed disparate pathways, which suggests an independent evolution. It is hypothesized that the driving force for the evolution of alkanes was acquiring means for attaining impermeability. Being more abundant in foragers linear alkanes have been secondarily coopted for signaling colony foraging intensity and accordingly adjusting task allocation. The evolution of branched alkanes is less clear and seems more complex. They are biosynthetically derived from branched fatty acid that may have been the roots of their evolution. Due to their bactericide activity branched fatty acids evolved as protective means. Secondarily, the biosynthesis of these acids was coopted for producing branched alkanes for communicative roles. Using branched alkanes as signals is adaptive due to their numerous isomers that convey large informational content. Moreover, being hydrophobic they blend within the linear alkane layer that covers the ants’ body surface. However, branched alkanes decrease the cuticular impermeability, so hypothetically their proportions are the result of a tradeoff steady state.

Abstract: Wetland restoration plays a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, particularly in semi-arid landscapes. The present study documents the avifaunal diversity of Kanwas Pakshi Vihar Wetland (Gopalpura Pakshi vihar), Kota district, Rajasthan, which represents a successfully restored wetland ecosystem. Post-restoration surveys recorded 91 bird species dominated by wetland-dependent taxa, indicating improved habitat quality.

Abstract:

Ground-nesting shorebirds face growing pressure from recreational activities in coastal urban areas. We monitored the breeding success of Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) and Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) over six consecutive years (2020–2025) at the Promenade of Sablettes, a heavily visited waterfront in Algiers, Algeria. We combined field surveys with multi-sensor remote sensing analysis using Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and Dynamic World data to quantify habitat change. A total of 105 nests were recorded across both species. Breeding success reached 70% during the COVID-19 lockdown period (2020–2021), when human visitation dropped sharply. In contrast, complete reproductive failure occurred in 2022 and 2023, coinciding with resumed tourism and unplanned construction activities. Remote sensing revealed that 80–85% of the study area experienced severe habitat degradation between 2020 and 2025, while suitable refuge zones shrank to less than 10% of the total surface. Fledged chicks consistently moved toward a less disturbed vegetated zone, highlighting its functional importance for brood survival. Our results show that human disturbance, rather than intrinsic habitat quality, is the main factor limiting breeding success at this site. When disturbance was reduced during the pandemic, the habitat proved fully functional for both species. These findings suggest that simple management measures such as seasonal access restrictions and symbolic fencing during the April–July breeding period could restore breeding conditions without major habitat engineering. This study provides one of the first integrations of long-term field breeding data with landscape-scale remote sensing to document the effects of the anthropause and subsequent recovery on urban shorebird populations.

Abstract: We present a falsification-oriented protocol to test Synchronous Parallel Emergence (SPE)—the hypothesis that evolutionary changes can occur in a temporally synchronized manner across genetically isolated populations, mediated by shared geometric constraints in a higher-dimensional counterspace as posited by the TCGS-SEQUENTION framework. The protocol is implemented as a three-gate decision procedure: (G1) statistical detection of cross-population synchrony via change-point alignment and permutation-based null generation; (G2) validation of population independence using genetic distance diagnostics and information-flow screening (e.g., transfer entropy) to rule out exchange or hidden coupling; and (G3) exclusion of common-cause explanations through covariate adjustment (e.g., mutator status, growth regime) and invariance checks under chart transformations. We provide a complete, parameter-locked Python implementation supporting preregistration, automated null synthesis, and reproducible reporting. As a stringent testbed, we identify the E. coli Long-Term Evolution Experiment (LTEE), in which 12 populations have evolved under strict isolation since 1988 for more than 75,000 generations. Applying the protocol to published LTEE mutation-timing records yields a set of loci exhibiting unusually tight cross-population temporal clustering. In particular, synchrony signals consistent with S∗ = 1.0 are observed for seven targets—spoT (12/12; ∼3,000 generations; p = 0.0034), topA (10/12; ∼3,000; p = 0.0092), the rbs operon (12/12; ∼3,500; p = 0.0014), ybaL (11/12; ∼3,500; p = 0.0039), iclR (8/12; ∼3,000; p = 0.0265), mreB (7/12; ∼4,000; p = 0.0236), and fis (8/12; ∼2,500; p = 0.0431). These candidates pass Gate G1 (synchrony under permutation control), Gate G2 (independence, supported by LTEE design and diagnostic screening), and Gate G3 (robustness after controlling for measured confounds and verifying chart-level invariances). While parallel genetic adaptation is expected in strong, shared selection regimes, the degree and temporal coherence of the observed clustering—if sustained under preregistered re-analyses and alternative null constructions—constitutes a distinctive empirical signature of SPE. Combining evidence across the seven loci yields an aggregate significance of p < 10⁻¹², motivating targeted replication and out-of-sample confirmation as decisive falsification tests.

Abstract: The TCGS-SEQUENTION framework proposes that observable evolutionary dynamics constitute projections from a higher-dimensional counterspace structure, implying that certain heritable traits may exhibit synchronized emergence across physically disconnected populations beyond what contact mediated mechanisms can explain. This paper presents a comprehensive, falsifiable protocol to test the Sequention hypothesis using existing public genomic data from D. melanogaster and fast-evolving microbial systems, providing a definitive empirical test that yields either support or falsification. We operationalize Synchronous Parallel Emergence (SPE) as the central testable prediction: multiple isolated populations exhibiting coordinated change-points in trait-linked markers within a predefined temporal window, after controlling for migration, shared environmental forcing, and all standard evolutionary mechanisms including soft sweeps, polygenic redundancy, and cytoplasmic hitchhiking. The protocol employs a three-gate falsification structure: (G1) significant synchrony beyond null expectation, (G2) exclusion of directed influence pathways, and (G3) common-cause exclusion with chart invariance. The protocol is executable immediately using the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP), Drosophila Genome Nexus (DGN), Evolve-and-Resequence (E&R) time series, and long-term bacterial evolution datasets. This paper provides a decisive, no-waiting proof attempt: either SPE persists after stringent controls (supporting Sequention), or it dissolves (falsifying the universality claim for these systems). Explicit decision rules, confound matrices, and implementation checklists are provided for independent replication.

Abstract: Pest mites (Tetranychidae) are major cassava pests in tropical Africa, where this crop is crucial for food security. In the Republic of Congo (RC), specific pest mite diversity remains poorly documented and is mainly based on morphological identification using non-African taxonomic keys, which cannot effectively distinguish closely related or cryptic species. This study aimed to clarify the status of cassava-associated Tetranychidae in the RC using multi-locus molecular barcoding on 12 mite samples collected from two plots in Brazzaville. The obtained sequences were processed using Genious to generate consensus sequences for everyone, which were then compared with data from GenBank and BOLD databases. The cytochrome c oxidase I marker showed a 25% amplification rate, yielding three new sequences that exhibited low divergence and clustered with a related Oligonychus sequence. The genetic divergence observed with O. biharensis suggests a distinct, potentially undescribed lineage. Phylogenetic analysis supported this result, highlighting a subclade originating from the RC that was strongly supported by the corresponding node. Contrastingly, ITS marker amplification yielded no results, which prevented validation of the multi-locus approach and illustrated the challenges encountered with this marker in Tetranychidae. These initial molecular data on cassava-associated Tetranychidae in the RC revealed a previously unreported Oligonychus lineage, justifying further research to improve the overall characterisation of these bio-aggressors in understudied regions.

Abstract: Populations and population dynamics can be understood by the combined interactions of resource supply, demographic pressures, and genetic interactions. In this work, a computational model integrating resource-based population growth and traditional Mendelian inheritance is presented. The modelization of population change over successive generations with a defined sex-based framework and scoring of genotypes (RR, Rr, and rr) is included, and stochastic mating and Poisson-distribution-based birth rate subject to resource interactions are also included in this Python-based computational model. Death rate is a stochastic function of resource use, factoring for age and intergenerational survival probabilities. We will examine the dynamics of the population under a wide spectrum of birth rates, overall resource availability, as well as overall resource utilization per capita under detailed simulations. The findings describe the different regions of collapse, growth, and stabilization phases of evolution along with the shifted high fertility boundary under strong resource conditions. For a scenario of abundant resources and a stable population, we have demonstrated that the genotype distribution tends to a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Additional examples incorporating genetic disorders describe the different evolution patterns under recessive and dominant conditions along with the rapid elimination of dominant deleterious alleles. We also examine the population response to three categories of disasters: moderate, severe, and catastrophic, calculating minimum fertility values for recovery and the number of survivors for each case. Simplified models of single-locus genetics, without mutation or migration, allow for an integrated analytical approach to investigating the interplay of environmental pressure, genetic composition, and demographic processes in shaping population resilience. This research demonstrates the utility of computer simulations in bridging the gap between ecological theory and genetic models of population and also yields fresh approaches to understanding population survival over time, subject to fluctuating environmental pressures.

Abstract: The Pacific sleeper shark (Somniosus pacificus, PSS) is a long-lived, deep-water and sub-polar species that exhibits flexible foraging strategies, likely combining scavenging with active predation on a broad range of prey, yet their role in marine food chains and impact on commercial species remain undetermined. Tracking the location of PSS in Alaskan coastal waters is extremely challenging given the predominantly aphotic depths that these sharks occupy, often in spatially constrained and critically under-sampled regions: deep, steep-flanked, convoluted fjords of Prince William Sound (PWS). From the first ever, year-long depth and temperature records recovered from archiving pop-up satellite-linked transmitters (n=7), we characterized the residence distributions, depth, and thermal habitat for sharks within the PWS fjords and identified seasonal and temporal variation in habitat use. Depths recorded from the seven sharks ranged from 3-572m, and pop-up tag locations suggested a high degree intra-annual residency within western PWS. Ambient water temperatures ranged from 2.65 to 11.1⁰C, with little deviation from the median of 5.9⁰C. Seasonal patterns emerged within and across individuals relative to the variation in vertical movements, ambient temperatures, and horizontal movements that could reflect resource-oriented strategies. The high degree of residency combined with extensive use of the water column facilitates the use of physically recoverable, high-resolution behavioral and environmental samplers on PSS. This adaptive sampling using PSS as platforms of opportunity may in turn enable the use of PSS as climate and ecosystem sentinels.

Abstract:

Background/Objectives: The well-established inverse relationship between lifespan and weight across dog breeds is associated with higher cancer mortality in larger breeds. However, Peto’s Paradox implies that larger-bodied species experience lower than expected cancer mortality because of higher levels of cancer suppression. Therefore, it has been hypothesised that recently established large dog breeds experience high cancer mortality because of a lag in their evolution of cancer suppression. This “adaptive lag hypothesis” predicts that ancient breeds, which have had more time to evolve optimal cancer suppression, exhibit lower cancer mortality rates, longer lifespans, and smaller litter sizes (a cost of cancer suppression) compared to modern breeds of the same size. Methods: The adaptive lag hypothesis is tested here by comparing ancient and modern breeds defined by their levels of modern European genetic admixture. Results: Ancient breeds have significantly longer lifespans and smaller litters than modern breeds of the same size after controlling for phylogenetic relationships. The sparse data on cancer mortality rates of ancient breeds do not allow a definitive test of a difference between ancient and modern breeds, but ancient breeds show a significant departure from the increase in cancer mortality rate with weight observed for modern breeds. Conclusions: The results are consistent with the adaptive lag hypothesis, that the evolution of cancer suppression in large modern dog breeds has lagged behind their increased risk of cancer, thus shortening their lives compared to smaller breeds and compared to ancient breeds of the same size.

Abstract: The TCGS-SEQUENTION framework maps diverse ``dark'' anomalies---galactic rotation curves in physics and convergent evolutionary design in biology---to a single geometric origin: the extrinsic response of a 3-D shadow manifold $\Sigma$ embedded into a static 4-D counterspace $\mathcal{C}$ by a projection map $X$. In its present form, the framework treats the extrinsic constitutive law (the $\mu$-function) as an empirically constrained response that remains materially unspecified. Here we show that the recent theory of evolution by natural induction (NI) provides a concrete micro-physical mechanism: any high-dimensional network with slightly viscoelastic interactions and intermittent perturbations exhibits a second-order relaxation (creep of interaction parameters) that implements an associative inductive bias without natural selection. We formalize a dictionary between NI and TCGS and prove a regime correspondence between material state and projection permeability. Crucially, we argue that the ``low-gradient'' sectors---often misidentified as dynamical modifications---are actually the shadow of \textbf{elastic stiffness (the un-yielded state)} in the projection substrate, whereas standard Newtonian behavior emerges from \textbf{viscoelastic yielding} (plastic flow) at high gradients. Because NI is fundamentally a two-level relaxation, its reliance on ``timescales'' is reinterpreted in TCGS as geometric depth in $\mathcal{C}$, strictly preserving the axiom that time is a gauge artifact. This reframing resolves the ``ecosystem anomaly'' highlighted by NI---adaptive organization without reproduction---as a natural consequence of Whole Content on $\mathcal{C}$. Finally, we introduce two cartographic inquiries diagnostic of a viscoelastic micro-physics: (P6) a Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) signature in adaptation rates; and (P7) enriched convergent ``associative'' correlates beyond functional utility. Under this mapping, ``chance'' is not denied but recast as slice-level sampling of deterministic creep in the source geometry.

Abstract:

Heavy metals (HMs) and metal-oxide nanoparticles (NPs) frequently co-occur in freshwater systems, yet their combined effects on microbial predators remain poorly understood. Here, the freshwater ciliate Coleps hirtus was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of single and binary mixtures of HMs (Cd, Cu, Zn) and NPs (ZnO, CuO, TiO₂, SiO₂), and to characterize associated antioxidant responses. Acute toxicity was assessed after 24 h by estimating LC₂₀ and LC₅₀ values, while mixture toxicity for Cd + Zn and Cd + ZnO was analyzed using the Toxic Unit approach and the MixTOX framework. Non-enzymatic (total phenolic content, DPPH, HRSA) and enzymatic (CAT, GST, GPx, SOD) antioxidants were quantified as sub-lethal biomarkers. HMs were markedly more toxic than NPs, with a toxicity ranking of Cu > Cd >> Zn, whereas NPs followed ZnO > CuO >> TiO₂ >> SiO₂. Cd + Zn mixtures showed predominantly antagonistic or non-interactive effects, while Cd + ZnO mixtures exhibited strong, dose-ratio–dependent synergism. Exposure to HMs and NPs induced significant and often coordinated changes in antioxidant biomarkers, with binary mixtures eliciting stronger responses than single contaminants. These results demonstrate that C. hirtus is sensitive to both HMs and metal-oxide NPs and can discriminate among different mixture interaction types. The combination of clear toxicity patterns and robust antioxidant responses supports the use of C. hirtus as a promising bioindicator for freshwater environments impacted by HMs and emerging metal-based nanomaterials.

Abstract: This study analyzes the provisioning strategy of the European Scops Owl (Otus scops) via continuous video monitoring of a breeding pair in a Mediterranean ecosystem (N = 724 deliveries). Invertebrates dominated numerically, with Orthoptera constituting 64.6%. Although vertebrates were scarce (1.8%), they contributed disproportionately to total biomass (20.8%), with rodents alone accounting for 20.3% of delivered energy. Parental effort followed a bimodal nocturnal rhythm, peaking at darkness onset (22:00 h) and before dawn. Crucially, we found a significant predation bias towards female orthopterans (65.6% vs. 34.3%; p < 0.001). While driven by Meconema thalassinum, selection in larger species like Tettigonia viridissima evidences a strategy focused on biomass profitability. Since Ensifera biomass scales allometrically (W ~ L^2.797), selecting females yields disproportionate energetic gains. We also report the systematic removal of ovipositors prior to delivery, a behavior that optimizes intake but renders high-value females undetectable in traditional pellet analyses. These results suggest O. scops exploits artificial light sources ("streetlight traps") to maximize foraging efficiency.

Abstract: The relationships between rodents and oak species are affected by a multitude of factors. Therefore, we have researched each pair of species separately, as each relationship has peculiarities that define it and make it different from others. We began by considering the rodent-acorn relationship to be simply predation. We then found that some of the acorns were stored and buried, while others were partially consumed, preserving the embryo so that they could germinate. The relationship was thus interpreted in terms of the rodents' collaboration in dissemination. In this study, we included a new factor. What happens when we include a third species in the relationship between rodents and oak trees: the predator of the acorn predator? To answer this question, we designed an experiment in which we placed four specimens of four species of rodents individually in semi-wild enclosures. Inside, we have given them the option of feeding on acorns placed under trees free of nocturnal birds of prey and trees with nocturnal birds of prey. We have studied the behaviour of four species of rodents and have found that three of them alter their foraging behaviour when they are under trees with nocturnal birds of prey. Algerian mouse (Mus spretus), wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), and garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) do not participate in the dissemination of acorns when nocturnal birds of prey are lurking, as they do not enter to collect acorns under the canopy occupied by birds of prey. Common vole (Microtus arvalis) does not change its behaviour when nocturnal birds of prey are present in trees. This species does not participate in seed dispersal either, as it does not transport acorns but consumes them in-situ.