Abstract: The relationships between rodents and oak species are affected by a multitude of factors. Therefore, we have researched each pair of species separately, as each relationship has peculiarities that define it and make it different from others. We began by considering the rodent-acorn relationship to be simply predation. We then found that some of the acorns were stored and buried, while others were partially consumed, preserving the embryo so that they could germinate. The relationship was thus interpreted in terms of the rodents' collaboration in dissemination. In this study, we included a new factor. What happens when we include a third species in the relationship between rodents and oak trees: the predator of the acorn predator? To answer this question, we designed an experiment in which we placed four specimens of four species of rodents individually in semi-wild enclosures. Inside, we have given them the option of feeding on acorns placed under trees free of nocturnal birds of prey and trees with nocturnal birds of prey. We have studied the behaviour of four species of rodents and have found that three of them alter their foraging behaviour when they are under trees with nocturnal birds of prey. Algerian mouse (Mus spretus), wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), and garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) do not participate in the dissemination of acorns when nocturnal birds of prey are lurking, as they do not enter to collect acorns under the canopy occupied by birds of prey. Common vole (Microtus arvalis) does not change its behaviour when nocturnal birds of prey are present in trees. This species does not participate in seed dispersal either, as it does not transport acorns but consumes them in-situ.

Abstract: The phenomenon of collective intelligence in biological swarms has traditionally been explained through emergentist paradigms, where complex global behaviors arise from simple local interactions. This paper presents an alternative geometric interpretation grounded in the Timeless Counterspace \& Shadow Gravity (TCGS)-SEQUENTION framework, proposing that collective behavior is fundamentally a projection artifact of a higher-dimensional static structure rather than an emergent property. We synthesize three independent lines of empirical research: (i) the mathematical proof by Soma et al.\ that honeybee swarm decision-making is equivalent to a single reinforcement learning agent, (ii) the demonstration by Vellinger et al.\ that stigmergic coordination in \textit{C.\ elegans} corresponds to Cross-Learning algorithms, and (iii) the Mean Feature Embedding approach of H\"uttenrauch et al.\ for permutation-invariant swarm representations. Within the TCGS ontology, these findings receive unified geometric interpretation: the ``single agent'' identified in swarm dynamics corresponds to a four-dimensional source singularity, pheromone fields constitute the physical instantiation of projected potentials, and invariant embeddings represent slice-independent geometric observables. We derive a single Extrinsic Constitutive Law for biological swarms that replaces the concept of ``emergence'' with ``projection,'' offering a deterministic, geometric resolution to the Combination Problem in collective cognition. The framework generates testable predictions regarding non-local correlations in partitioned colonies, critical acceleration scales in flocking dynamics, and decoherence thresholds in rapidly changing environments.

Abstract: Aspergillus fumigatus is the primary pathogen causing aspergillosis. Recent molecular population genetic studies have demonstrated that A. fumigatus exhibits high local genetic diversity and with evidence for limited differentiation among geographic populations. However, research on the impacts of geomorphological factors on shaping the population diversity patterns of this species remains scarce. In this study, large-scale sampling and in-depth population genetic analysis were performed on soil-derived A. fumigatus from Guizhou Province, a representative karst landscape in southern China. This area is dominated by plateaus and mountains (accounting for 92.5% of the total area) and rep-resents a classic example of conical karst landscapes. A total of 206 A. fumigatus strains were isolated from 9 sampling sites across Guizhou. Genetic diversity, genetic differen-tiation, and population structure of these strains were analyzed based on 9 loci short tandem repeats (STRs). The results revealed that A. fumigatus in the karst region of Guizhou harbors abundant novel alleles and genotypes, with high genetic diversity. Gene flow among geographical populations was infrequent, and significant genetic differentiation was detected between multiple pairs of geographical populations, with the overall regional genetic differentiation reaching PhiPT = 0.061. Furthermore, the Guizhou populations showed significant differences from those reported in other regions world-wide. Surprisingly, only one of the 206 (0.49%) A. fumigatus isolates from this region exhibited resistance to the two medical triazoles commonly used for treating aspergillosis, and this resistance frequency was far lower than those reported in previous studies from other regions

Abstract: Biodiversity is an essential natural resource providing raw material for evolution by natural selection. Bottleneck and founder effects lead to the lack of genetic variation and, in turn, a decreased adaptive potential and elevated risk of extinction. One of the mechanisms maintaining genetic diversity and phenotypic variation to avoid loss of heterozygosity is the acquiring of new genetic material via gene duplication. It can result from small-scale events like unequal crossing over, retroposition, or large-scale whole genome duplication (WGD). New transcriptomic patterns in polyploids lead to transcriptomic and phenotypic novelty that can facilitate increased adaptability under environmental changes. Despite the great genetic diversity potentially generated by WGD and further genome reorganization, only a few WGD events are evolutionary ‘successful.’ Macrostomum lignano, a free-living marine flatworm, is one of the astonishingly successful neopolyploid species. We uncovered the hidden polyploidy of its genome masked with intensive karyotype reorganization. The M. lignano genome consists of three subgenomes that emerged due to the formation of a large fused chromosome and its variants and maintained their heterozygosity through chromosomal rearrangements. In this study, we sought to unveil differences in gene expression and phenotypic variation among euploid and aneuploid worms of M. lignano, being hidden tetra- and hexaploids, respectively.

Abstract:

The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is a globally important species, yet little is known about the behavior of adults in nature. Here, we investigated (a) whether wild populations exhibit lekking behaviors, (b) whether wild adults feed, and (c) the microbial diversity of the adult gut. Fieldwork was conducted in Alajuela Province, San Ramon, Costa Rica at three sites (a field station, a local farm, and an ecolodge compost facility). At all three sites, a highly female-skewed sex ratio (F:M=0.98) was observed. Despite many sampling attempts within 30-m of the oviposition site, no mating behaviors were directly observed within this radius, mostly due to the lack of males. Modeling confirmed female abundance declined sharply with increasing distance, and indeed no individuals were observed beyond a 7.5-m radius from the oviposition site, supporting the hypothesis that males and females may occupy distinct habitats in the wild, consistent with lekking. Modeling also revealed BSF were mostly observed between 9:00-14:30, with a peak at 12:00-noon. BSF sightings peaked at 34.7 °C, 78.5% RH, and 8000 µW/cm² of UV-AB light, while none were observed past 40°C. The presence of vertebrate DNA in the guts of adults revealed that 100% of individuals previously fed as adults, possibly to supplement nutritional reserves during long-distance flights. Lastly, microbial community analysis revealed a core community of microbes present within the gut of wild-caught BSF. By considering spatial molecular ecology at three field sites, this study highlights the strong association of the black soldier fly with human-modified environments, suggesting environmental structure and resource availability may play a large role in shaping wild fly behavior. This work presents the first detailed field report of H. illucens in the Neotropics and offers some critical insights for future fieldwork as well as baseline traits for industrial applications.

Abstract: Humans and other terrestrial vertebrates contain two estrogen receptors (ERs), ERand ER. Among cartilaginous fish (sharks, rays, skates), which are jawless vertebrates that evolved about 525 million years ago, only activation by steroids of ER orthologs has been characterized. To remedy this gap in understanding estrogen signaling in jawless vertebrates, we studied estrogen activation of orthologs of human ER and ER from elephant shark (Callorhynchus milii). Un-expectedly, we found that C. milii contained three estrogen-responsive ER genes: ER1 (596 amino acids), ER2 (600 amino acids), and ER3 (599 amino acids) with strong sequence simi-larity to each other. We also found an estrogen-unresponsive gene, ER4 (561 amino acids), with a 39 amino acid deletion in the DNA-binding domain. An estrogen-responsive ER ortholog (580 amino acids) also was present in C. milii. The three active C. milii ERs have a similar length to human ER (595 amino acids); however, C. milii ER is longer than human ER (530 amino acids). We determined the half-maximal response (EC50) and fold-activation to estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), and estriol (E3) of C. milii ER1, ER2, ER3, and ER. Among these es-trogens, E2 had the lowest EC50 for all four ERs. Fold-activation by E2 and E3 was similar for ER1, ER2, ER3, and ER. Overall, estrogen activation of C. milii ER and ER was simi-lar to that for human ER and ER, indicating substantial conservation of the vertebrate ER in the 525 million years since the divergence of cartilaginous fish and humans from a common ancestor.

Abstract:

Weakened forest stands provide a favorable environment for the development of saprotrophic and necrotrophic fungi. Traditional identification methods for these ecological groups of fungi are not always effective. However, modern DNA barcoding methods based on sequencing DNA regions of the studied fungal specimens and comparing them 31 with the nucleotide sequences of previously classified organisms often allow for precise species identification. Thus, to identify fungi using barcoding in weakened Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands in the Central Forest-Steppe of European Russia (Voronezh, Voronezh Region), 55 mycelium and fruiting body samples were collected from conifer litter and Scots pine damaged butt part of the trunk and roots. After morphological and ecological description and systematization of the collection, DNA extraction was performed, the ITS1 and ITS2 regions were sequenced in 21 samples, and 11 species of xylotrophic fungi were identified, of which three species — Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceus (Ehrenb.) Donk, Gymnopilus penetrans (Fr.) Murrill, and Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. — infect living wood. The remaining eight representatives of the mycobiota were saprotrophic fungi involved in the mineralization of organic residues. Two phyla, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, were identified, with the most samples belonging to Basidiomycota and the class Agaricomycetes with seven orders. The predominance of Basidiomycota species indicates stages III-IV mycogenic xylolysis of the weakened stands analyzed. The DNA barcoding method complements the results of morphological and ecological analysis and provides a more complete mycological picture of wood-destroying fungi in weakened pine forests that are difficult to identify.

Abstract: The Cladia aggregata group of lichen-forming fungi comprises multiple species that are difficult to differentiate based on phenotypic characters. The Cladia aggregata group has a wide distribution across several continents, but is most diverse in Australasia. We aimed to delimit the species complex further, investigate the relatedness of the lineages, and examine their distributional ranges and phenotypic traits. We used Restriction Site Associated DNA Sequencing (RAD-seq) to compare thousands of loci across 91 individuals from the Americas, Asia, and Australasia. All Asian samples formed a distinct, monophyletic clade in all phylogenetic trees, while the American samples divided into two clades: one comprising South American samples and another comprising Caribbean samples—the latter representing C. aggregata sensu stricto, as the type specimen was collected in Jamaica. Further population-genomic analyses support the conclusion that the Asian samples are genetically distinct and are here described as a new species. The new species, Cladia asiatica, accommodates the Asian samples previously included in C. aggregata. Our analysis highlights the potential of next-generation sequencing to reveal hidden diversity and resolve the phylogeny of this species complex and lichen-forming fungi in general.

Abstract: Pasture-based ruminant systems link nitrogen (N) nutrition with ecosystem N cycling. Grazing ruminants convert fibrous forages into milk and meat but excrete 65 to 80% of ingested N, creating excreta hotspots that drive ammonia volatilization, nitrate leaching, and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. This review synthesizes ecological and rumen-nutrition evidence on N flows, emphasizing microbial processes, biological N₂ fixation, plant diversity, and urine patch biogeochemistry, and evaluates strategies to improve N use efficiency (NUE). We examine rumen N metabolism in relation to microbial protein synthesis, urea recycling, and dietary factors including crude protein concentration, energy supply, forage composition, and plant secondary compounds that modulate protein degradability and microbial N capture, thereby influencing N partitioning among animal products, urine, and feces, as reflected in milk and blood urea N. Also, examine how grazing patterns and excreta distribution, assessed with sensor technologies, modify N flows. Evidence indicates that integrated management combining dietary manipulation, forage diversity, targeted grazing, and decision tools can increase farm-gate NUE from 20-25% to over 30% while sustaining performance. Framing these processes within the global N cycle positions pasture-based ruminant systems as critical leverage points for aligning ruminant production with environmental and climate sustainability goals.

Abstract: Background: Lazzaretto Vecchio (old Lazaret), founded in 1423 in the Venetian lagoon, is the world’s earliest permanent quarantine hospital. For nearly three centuries, it served as the primary containment and burial site for both residents and travelers, who died under suspicion of infectious disease. Historical records describe tens of thousands of deaths during major Venetian plague epidemics and mandated burial on the quarantine islands. Yet, the small artificial island could physically accommodate only a fraction of the recorded deaths. Most epidemic victims appear absent from the official burial grounds, exposing a striking discrepancy between the material record and historical narratives of early epidemic containment. Hypothesis: Lazzaretto Vecchio was not a comprehensive burial ground for Venice’s epidemic dead, but a demographic and evolutionary filter. We evaluate three hypotheses: (H1) Venetian Plague House: quarantine burials are dominated by residents, and residents account for most total deaths. (H2a) Ellis Island Effect: burials predominantly represent travelers intercepted at the maritime frontier. (H2b) Secret Republic Fire: peak urban deaths were rapidly removed through undocumented emergency disposal, leaving little archaeological trace. H1 is mutually exclusive with either H2a or H2b. H2a and H2b are complementary, together describing a dual-regime containment system in which Lazzaretto Vecchio functioned differently under normal (H2a) versus crisis conditions (H2b). Methods Feasibility: Approximately 1,200 individuals are sampled for analysis. Ancient DNA, pathogen screening, stable isotopes, proteomics, radiocarbon dating, and stratigraphic modeling will reconstruct demographic composition, geographic origin, kinship structure, and pathogen dynamics. Hypotheses Testing: If H1 is correct, then remains should primarily reflect Venice’s general population, adults and children in family groups. If H2a is correct, then remains should consist largely of unaccompanied adults of diverse geographic origin, with pathogen genomes showing stalling, extinction, or limited transmission. If H2b is correct, then radiocarbon and stratigraphic gaps will mark epidemic peaks absent from burial layers, indicating crisis mortality managed through off-record disposal. Conclusions: Lazzaretto Vecchio offers an archaeological testbed for a dual-regime epidemic system, routine quarantine mortality coupled with hidden surge disposal, and a hypothesis-driven model for how governance, logistics, and containment infrastructure may shape pathogen evolution and resilience.

Abstract: A once extensive forest with an abundance of wild fruit trees (progenitors of domestic apple, pear, cherry, apricot and more) once extended from the Tian Shan Mountains of Kazakhstan through Iran, Turkmenistan, Georgia, and Armenia, finally reaching a western limit in Anatolia. Only relict stands remain, which are high priority for conservation. This center of crop ancestral diversity was first recognized by Vavilov as one of his “Centers of Origin” but the full range of this forest type is only recently appreciated as in the book by Spengler. A chance encounter with a stand of this forest in Iran led me to research the composition and extent of this forest, its dispersal, and its fate. This forest, with its abundance of fruit trees, crossed from northern Mesopotamia to the foothills of the Himalayas in ancient times and may have been the source for the mythical Garden of Eden.

Abstract:

African grasses deliberately introduced for cattle forage have become among the most destructive invaders of tropical wetlands globally, yet invasion mechanisms and management strategies remain poorly understood. We conducted field experiments examining competition dynamics between the invasive African grass Echinochloa pyramidalis and native wetland species in La Mancha, Mexico—a Ramsar site of international importance. Experiment 1 tested invasion potential within native Sagittaria lancifolia zones using four treatments: control, herbicide removal, E. pyramidalis transplant, and combined removal + transplant. Repeated measures ANOVA showed significant treatment and time effects on invasion success, with vegetation removal facilitating invasion (relative importance value increasing from 0 to 149.4 ± 26.6 after 18 months) while transplants alone failed to establish (RIV < 7.0). Sagittaria maintained 35-48% biomass across treatments, demonstrating coexistence capacity. Experiment 2 examined natural invasion of the vegetation ecotone over 49 months. Mixed-effects models revealed that E. pyramidalis increased dominance in its zone (β = 9.98, z = 4.77, p < 0.001) but showed minimal expansion into adjacent Sagittaria habitat, indicating propagule limitation rather than competitive exclusion as the invasion constraint. Sagittaria removal within E. pyramidalis zones significantly reduced invasion temporal increase (β = -6.44, z = -2.18, p = 0.030), suggesting biotic resistance. Results demonstrate that E. pyramidalis possesses invasion potential but requires disturbance to overcome establishment barriers. These findings support prevention-based management prioritizing disturbance limitation in intact wetlands and demonstrate that hydrological management maintaining permanent flooding (>30 cm depth) can effectively control established invasions by exploiting C₄ photosynthetic limitations. Conservation implications for Mexican coastal wetlands—which lack legal protection equivalent to mangroves despite comparable ecosystem services—are discussed. These findings inform evidence-based management of African grass invasions in tropical wetlands worldwide.

Abstract: A challenge in the ethological study of wild animals is the need for detailed, long-term observations, which work is particularly difficult in the case of sharks. Consequently, most research relies on tagging and remote sensing technologies to provide presence-absence data in which the behavioural and social context is lacking. In contrast, this study employed direct underwater observation to document the movements of 475 identified blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) along the north shore of Mo’orea Island, French Polynesia. Over 6.5 years, repeated sightings across multiple locations revealed movement as a defining feature of C. melanopterus behaviour; juveniles demonstrated substantial mobility even at an early age. The principal drivers were the reproductive season and the lunar phase. A tendency to avoid turbulent regions and absences linked to fishing mortality were also evident. Individual variation was pronounced, reflecting behavioural flexibility and complex spatial ecology. By linking observed movements to behavioural context, this ethological approach complements telemetry-based studies and highlights the need for integrative research strategies. These findings also underline the importance of integrating both site fidelity and wide-ranging roaming behaviour into conservation strategies. Effective protection—including through the design of Marine Protected Areas—must account for the breadth of their movements to ensure the persistence of populations and the resilience of coral reef ecosystems. Ultimately, given the continuing threats from the shark fin trade and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, a total ban on the international trade in sharks, rays, chimaeras and their parts remains urgently needed.

Abstract: Information on the breeding of the Pinto’s Spinetail Synallaxis infuscata, an endangered Brazilian Furnariid, is scarce. This study aims to complement it, by looking at nest and clutch parameters, breeding period, and nest success. Once nests were found, they were closely monitored from a hide. Between 1986 and 2018, 33 nests were found in the Pedra Talhada Forest near Quebrangulo. Nests were found year-round, except in middle of the dry season. Nests were of the closed/retort type, weighing 552.1 g, and measuring 37.6 x 28.8 cm, with a side arm of 30.6 x 4.9 cm., on average. The clutch size averaged 2.10 eggs, which measured 22.25 x 17.18 mm and weighed 3.17 g. They were white and had an oval to pointed-oval shape. Mean incubation period was 21.5 days, and mean nestling period 14.71 days. The apparent nest success was 27.3%, while Mayfield’s was 21.8%. Predation was the main cause of nest failure, accounting for 81% of cases. The breeding data we collected on S. infuscata falls within the range of observations of a comprehensive analysis on other Synallaxis species. This breeding information is important for conservation, as rates of nest loss are a key factor in evaluating population viability.

Abstract:

Deep-sea hydrothermal vent fauna is often regarded as highly endemic, although exceptions have been reported. We examined genetic connectivity across broad spatial scales within the alvinocaridid genus Rimicaris, which has undergone substantial adaptive radiation worldwide. We analyzed six Rimicaris species using three genetic markers (COI, 16S, and H3) and complete mitogenomes, using newly generated sequences combined with publicly available sequence data. Genetic tree and haplotype networks were constructed, and divergence analyses were performed. As a result, three clades of paired Rimicaris species were identified, each comprising taxa from different oceanic regions, but showing relatively low COI divergence (0.35–1.90%). In Clade I, Rimicaris chacei and Rimicaris hybisae are morphologically similar and exhibit bidirectional gene flow, suggesting a dispersal route between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Mid-Cayman Spreading Center. In Clade II, Rimicaris exoculata and Rimicaris kairei are morphologically, genetically, and ecologically distinct, reflecting restricted connectivity between the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Carlsberg Ridge–Central Indian Ridge. In Clade III, Rimicaris variabilis and Rimicaris cf. variabilis differ in nutritional strategies, showing a unidirectional dispersal route from the northern Central Indian Ridge to the southwestern Pacific, but morphological data to distinguish them are currently lacking. Some Rimicaris lineages maintain connectivity across distinct oceanic regions while others still form unique regional populations. This finding highlights the need for conservation strategies that incorporate both global-scale connectivity and regional endemism, rather than treating vent ecosystems as a single homogeneous management unit.

Abstract: What mechanisms drive and shape the stepwise evolution from simple carbon-based materials (CBMs) into complex organisms and societies? This fundamental question spans life's origin, biological diversification, and societal development, yet remains unresolved because it has often been studied in isolation. Through cross-disciplinary integrative reasoning, empirical validation, and mathematical modeling, here we extend Darwinian theory to formulate the Carbon-Based Evolutionary Theory (CBET) ¾ the first explicit framework that unifies chemical, biological, and social evolution. CBET highlights energy flow, functions of CBMs, environmental influence, and mathematical rules. It derives three axioms and two key mechanisms ¾ spriodynamic feedback and natural selection, which drive and shape the stepwise evolution from carbon atoms to societies, respectively. CBET schematically explains how CBMs diversify, elevate hierarchies, increase fitness, and enhance orderliness and complexity. Furthermore, CBET refines fitness calculation and clarifies five common misunderstandings about evolution. It elucidates the natural balance of competition versus inclusiveness, selfishness versus altruism, and individual versus collective interests, thereby offering a scientific foundation for fostering balanced, harmonious societal development.

Abstract: Anguilla japonica is a catadromous fish widely distributed in coastal areas, rivers, and adjacent water bodies in China, North Korea, Japan, and other regions. The Yangtze River Estuary serves as a crucial passage for A. japonica migrating downstream to the sea. The peak migration period occurs from late September to early November each year, during which a large number of adult A. japonica appear on the market. However, during market supervision and law enforcement, it is difficult to determine their origin and whether they come from prohibited fishing areas. Therefore, there is an urgent need to trace the origin of A. japonica from different water bodies. This study used muscle elemental fingerprint analysis (EFA) to determine the geographical origin of A. japonica from different water bodies. The results showed that A. japonica from different habitats had distinct elemental compositions in their muscles. Specifically, A. japonica from estuary waters (EW) were characterized by significantly higher levels of V and Hg compared to other water bodies. Na was identified as a key discriminant element among different habitats, with its content significantly increasing in river waters (RW), EW, and offshore waters (OW), respectively. Discriminant analysis selected four discriminant elements (V, Hg, Na and Cu) from 21 elemental compositions, among which V, Hg and Na were the three key distinguishing elements. Based on the composition of these four discriminant elements in the muscles of A. japonica from different habitats, hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were applied and validated, successfully achieving rapid and accurate origin tracing and verification for new samples. Therefore, the application of muscle EFA can achieve geographical traceability of A. japonica from different habitats. The analytical method and verification process for origin tracing established in this study can be successfully applied to market supervision for tracing the origin of samples with unknown sources.

Abstract:

The “algarrobo”, Neltuma pallida is a key tree species in the seasonally dry tropical forests in Equatorial Pacific South America, currently at risk. Its regeneration depends on endozoochorous seed dispersal, in which seeds are ingested and later defecated by animals, helping to release and scarify them. This study compared the role of the native white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and the introduced goat (Capra hircus) in seed dispersal. Seeds were recovered from the dung of both species after experimental feeding and from free-ranging goats grazing in fruiting N. pallida forests. Seed recovery was higher in deer dung (9.4%) than in goat dung (3.1%). Retention time was also shorter in deer (peak at 48 hours) than in goats (peak at 84 hours). Only deer scarification significantly improved germination percentage (Tukey test, p < 0.001) and germination speed (T25 = 8.98 days). Goats reduced germination speed under experimental conditions (T25 = 19.25 days), but slightly improved it under forest conditions (T25 = 12.81 days). These differences are attributed to the morphophysiological traits of each species. Although goats did not enhance overall germination, they maintained it at ~44% and contributed to seed dispersal and dormancy release.

Abstract:

The emergence of the Third Plague Pandemic in 19th-century Yunnan, linked to Yersinia pestis strain 1.ORI, remains incompletely understood. Applying a One Health framework, this study investigates how human-driven ecological and societal disruptions during the 19th century compromised zoonotic barriers, facilitating initial spillover and a bottleneck event that enabled global spread. Our interdisciplinary methodology analyzes Qing dynasty gazetteers, historical medical records, and environmental data, integrated with biological evidence on transmission dynamics involving commensal rats and the flea vector Xenopsylla cheopis. Results indicate that convergent factors—including widespread deforestation, intensified mining/agriculture, population growth, high synanthropic rat densities, and the disruptions of the Panthay Rebellion—collectively created a high-risk interface for zoonotic transfer. Critically, comorbidities such as malnutrition, heavy metal exposure, and opium use likely eroded host immune resilience in both rodent and human populations, amplifying transmission. Yunnan’s rapid socio-ecological transformation was thus a critical catalyst for pandemic emergence. This analysis underscores how historical land-use, demographic shifts, and public health conditions shaped zoonotic risk. Crucially, a One Health assessment must analyze interactions across time and space, recognizing that environmental, biological, and socioeconomic changes occur on non-uniform temporal scales. This spatiotemporal perspective provides a framework that offers deeper insight into past pandemic origins and for anticipating contemporary vulnerabilities.

Abstract: Life is defined by self-governing networks of molecules changing conformation cyclically to convert thermodynamic motion into directional work that creates structure. A spectrum of scale, from nanoscopic to macroscopic, involves a shift from intracellular thermody-namically driven processes (thermal agitation ultimately rooted in quantum phenomena) to intercellular bulk flows described by classical physics; from short-distance transport involving diffusion and cytoskeletal transport to long-distance pressure fluxes in hydrau-lic networks. A review of internal transport systems in macroscopic eukaryotes suggests that a key evolutionary step favoring large size and multicellularity involved exploiting molecular-scale stochasticity to generate organized bulk flows (e.g. motor proteins collec-tively generating mechanical pressures in metazoan tissues such as cardiac muscle; within tracheophytes, active and passive phloem loading/unloading inducing pressure gradients, and active regulation enabling passive xylem function and hydraulic reliability; sieve-like conduction in heterokonts; peristaltic shuttle streaming in myxogastrian plas-modia). All macroscopic physiologies are underpinned by Brownian dynamics and thus quantum mechanics. Although well documented separately, acknowledgment of the role of quantum mechanics as the foundation of physiology unites the smallest single cells with the largest multicellular organisms across the tree of life; demonstrating how all large biological organisms represent an outgrowth of the smallest scales of physics.