Environmental and Earth Sciences

Abstract: This paper introduces a technique for assessing the progress towards air pollution and greenhouse gas targets. To guide policy decisions, an atmospheric emissions indicator, AEI, combining national air quality and greenhouse gas emissions, is proposed. It has been applied to the UK, but could be adopted by other countries. Although not directly a measure of environmental consequences, this index is a simple policy aid to implementing air pollution and climate change targets based on an emission ceilings approach. The proposed AEI index is a weighted sum of emissions derived from modelling studies of the impact of UK air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions between 1970 and 2050. The approach is not so very different from aspects of current UK legislation, such as the National Emissions Ceilings Regulations, the UK Climate Change Act, National Determined Contributions within the Paris Agreement, and other assessment tools of population exposure, such as cost-benefit analyses and other environmental targets. The indicator could be extended to incorporate very short-lived radiative forcers associated with air pollution.

Abstract: We quantified potentially toxic elements in surface soils from Taranto (Apulia, Italy) along an industrial-to-urban gradient (0-15 km) from a large integrated steel plant. Industrial emissions have been associated with increased cancer incidence, respiratory and neurodevelopmental impacts. We performed 3,446 georeferenced in situ measurements using portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF) spectroscopy in five residential districts (Tamburi, Statte, Paolo VI, Taranto centre, and Talsano) at incremental distance from the point source. Concentrations of arsenic (As), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni) rubidium (Rb), strontium (Sr), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) differed significantly across districts. Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn showed a clear distance-related decrease from the plant perimeter to more distal residential locations. Exceedances of Italian residential soil limits (D.Lgs. 152/2006) were frequent for As, Cu, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn and Hg exceeded the 1 mg/kg residential limit in all measurements. Spatial patterns were consistent with atmospheric transport and deposition of industrial particulates, with additional contributions from traffic and other local sources. These findings document widespread multi-element soil contamination in Taranto and support sustained environmental monitoring and targeted remediation, prioritizing neighborhoods closest to the industrial area and incorporating community engagement.

Abstract: Airborne microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as atmospheric pollutants with potential implications for human exposure; however, their occurrence, temporal variability, and associations with urban particulate matter remain poorly understood. This study investigated MPs associated with PM₁₀ in central Los Angeles across two seasonal sampling campaigns by integrating MP abundance, morphology, size distribution, PM₁₀ chemical composition, and meteorological observations. MPs were detected in all samples, with concentrations ranging from 2.2-4.0 MP/m³ during the cool-season campaign and 2.2-3.4 MP/m³ during the warm-season campaign. Fibers remained the dominant morphology, while particles <100 µm, particularly the 5-50 µm and 50-100 µm fractions, consistently dominated the airborne MP population. Strong positive correlations (generally ρ ≥ 0.79) were observed between total MP concentrations and major crustal (Fe, Si, Mn, Ca, Al, and Mg), traffic-related (Ba, Cu, and Ni), and carbonaceous (OC and EC) tracers, indicating that MPs are closely associated with urban particulate mixtures influenced by resuspension and non-tailpipe traffic emissions. In contrast, short-term meteorological variability showed no consistent relationship with MP concentrations. These findings indicate that airborne MPs are a persistent component of the urban PM10 mixture rather than isolated contaminants, and provide new insight into their sources and behavior in densely populated urban environments.

Abstract: Meteorology drives the day-to-day pollution variation behind short-term health effects, and its misattribution biases exposure estimates and trend normalisation. Wind speed and boundary-layer height (BLH), the two main dispersion controls, are strongly collinear and their relative roles are contested. We quantified the variance unique to each with semi-partial R² for NO₂, O₃, PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ in France's ten largest cities over 2018–2025, across four frames, from pooled levels to deseasonalized, de-trended anomalies, checked with generalized additive models. Wind and BLH covary strongly (mean r ≈ 0.70, 0.81 on anomalies). On pooled levels, BLH carries four (NO₂, O₃) to nine (particulate matter) times the unique variance of wind, whereas their raw correlations with the primary pollutants differ by a factor of only 1.3 to 1.4. This lead is robust for particulate matter. For O₃, temperature dominates and humidity then exceeds BLH, plausibly a photochemical signal. For NO₂ it is partly seasonal: on anomalies the two become comparable, and wind leads only in cities with coherent regional winds. The contrasts yield a three-type typology, ventilation-controlled, transitional and boundary-layer-controlled, which predicts the meteorological covariate each city needs. A single meteorological adjustment is therefore inadequate across cities, and BLH should become a first-tier predictor.

Abstract: Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) pollution is an important environmental challenge in rapidly urbanizing and industrializing regions; however, spatial inequalities, localized hotspots, and long-term trends remain insufficiently characterized in Jordan. This study evaluates ambient PM_2.5 variability across available locations within Jordan’s national air-quality monitoring network during 2018–2024, with emphasis on spatial distribution, hotspot identification, and temporal trends. Annual PM_2.5 observations from monitoring locations representing urban/residential, urban/traffic, industrial, and mixed industrial–urban environments were analyzed using descriptive statistics, non-parametric trend analysis, and comparative statistical tests. The study identified substantial spatial variability among monitoring locations, with several of the highest concentrations observed in industrial and mixed industrial–urban environments, although elevated concentrations were also observed in urban settings. Industrial-related sites showed a mean PM_2.5 concentration of 26.51 µg/m³ compared with 29.24 µg/m³ for urban-related sites; however, the difference was not statistically significant (Mann–Whitney U=297,p=0.604), indicating that elevated PM_2.5levels are influenced by multiple emission environments rather than industrial classification alone. Temporal analysis indicated a declining trend during 2018–2024, with a Sen’s slope of −1.67 µg/m³/year, although interpretation should consider the progressive expansion of monitoring coverage. Significant governorate-level differences demonstrated clear spatial inequality in PM_2.5 distribution, highlighting the need for targeted monitoring and location-specific air-quality management strategies in Jordan.

Abstract: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are among the most persistent and toxic fractions of petroleum-contaminated soils, and their strong sorption to soil organic matter often limits remediation efficiency. This study quantitatively evaluates inorganic photocatalysts used for PAH degradation in direct-soil, soil-suspension, and soil-washing-derived systems, emphasizing TiO2, iron oxides/oxyhydroxides, doped TiO₂, ZnO-based materials, while also examining their reported consequences for soil microbial communities and bioremediation. A PRISMA-informed framework was adopted, and quantitative evidence was standardized as parent-compound removal, rate constants, half-lives, and kinetic enhancement ratios when calculable. The quantitative analysis showed that 0.5% TiO₂ reduced the reported half-lives of phenanthrene, pyrene, and benzo[a]pyrene from 533.15, 630.09, and 363.22 h to 130.77, 192.53, and 103.26 h, corresponding to kinetic enhancements of 4.08-, 3.27-, and 3.52-fold. Recent TiO₂/α-FeOOH, MIL-88A(Fe), and other visible-light systems improve solar utilization, but cross-study comparison remains constrained by heterogeneity in matrix type, catalyst dosage, irradiation conditions, and uncertainty reporting. None of the primary studies measured soil microbial abundance, diversity, or community structure, leaving the biological consequences for the native microbiome and downstream bioremediation as a gap. Overall, the quantitative findings support inorganic photocatalysis as a promising hybrid remediation strategy, but future studies must standardize reporting, verify mineralization, assess post-treatment microbial recovery, and support field-scale validation.

Abstract: Intensive agricultural production generates large volumes of lignocellulosic residues and contributes to heavy metal pollution, particularly copper (Cu). The valorization of these by-products as low-cost adsorbents offers a promising strategy for circular economy implementation and environmental remediation. In this study, lignin–silica nanocomposites were synthesized via a sol–gel process from two abundantly available agricultural wastes in Cuba: rice husk and coffee parchment. The nanocomposites were characterized by FT-IR, TEM and TGA methods. The nanocomposites showed a spherical shape and a diameter between 50 and 60 nm and their silica composition depended on the composition of the starting material. The nanocomposite obtained from rice husk had a silica ratio of 52 % while in the one prepared from coffee parchment it was 11 %. Adsorption capacities and adsorption behaviors with Cu(II) in water of the nanocomposites were studied. The adsorbents reached equilibrium within 10 minutes and the estimated maximum sorption capacities were 15 mg/g using rice husk as the starting material and 12 mg/g for the one prepared from coffee parchment. Nanocomposite synthesis is a promising route for lignocellulosic biomass revalorization as heavy metal adsorbents for environmental sanitation.

Abstract: This study investigates the remediation of natural soil samples from diverse locations, which exhibit varying degrees of copper contamination. To further elucidate the mechanisms of contaminant retention and desorption, similar extraction studies were conducted on representative soils. Finally, the resulting metal-rich leachates were treated using advanced organomodified adsorbents. This step aimed to minimize the volume of contaminated solutions and facilitate the recovery of valuable components, thereby contributing to a circular remediation process.

Abstract: The environmental chemical exposome encompasses legacy pollutants and emerging contaminants that collectively shape ecological and human health risks. Texas and New Mexico contain petrochemical, agricultural, mining, and energy production regions, yet no quantitative synthesis has characterized exposure research or identified knowledge gaps that limit environmental management. We present a bibliometric and text-mining assessment of research on environmental pollution across both states from 1999 to 2024. A search of Web of Science and PubMed yielded 4,936 records, of which 191 met eligibility criteria. Keyword normalization, trend factor and co-occurrence analyses, geospatial mapping, and domain classification characterized the landscape. The most frequent keywords were air pollution, lead, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, reflecting emphasis on legacy contaminants and industrial air pollution. Trend factor analysis revealed growth in PFAS, EDCs, pharmaceuticals, black carbon, microplastics, and nanoplastics during 2020 to 2024; normalization of the log response ratio by period reproduced the ranking (Spearman rho = 0.999). Air (31.9%), soil and sediment (25.7%), and water (25.7%) dominated, whereas health and exposure (16.3%) and environmental justice (11.6%) remained underrepresented. Clusters included Industrial Air Quality and Health (n = 85) and Heavy Metals in Soil and Water (n = 72). Studies concentrated in the Houston Gulf Coast region, while New Mexico contributed 9.4% of publications. Approximately 82% did not address environmental justice. Persistent gaps include PFAS homologs, 6PPD quinone, flame retardants, neuroactive pharmaceuticals, transboundary waterways, and Indigenous communities. These findings establish an evidence-based framework for prioritizing regional monitoring, biomonitoring, environmental justice research, and regulatory decisions.

Abstract: This study quantified the linkage between the watershed abundance of agricultural mulch film and its accumulation along riverbanks in the Hamada River catchment, Japan, by integrating riverbank monitoring, catchment-wide surveys, hydrological connectivity assessment, and delivery ratio estimation. Mulch film covered 41,748 m² of the watershed during the 2025 growing season, with abundance varying by crop type. Black film was predominantly associated with red perilla, while silver film was almost exclusively used for tobacco. Riverbank monitoring from 2023 to 2025 showed that mulch film accounted for 22.5% of cumulative surface area coverage but only 5.6% of cumulative weight density, reflecting its thin, sheet-form geometry. Its accumulation was associated with episodic hydrological connectivity, with integrated hydrological exposure significantly correlating with both surface area coverage (ρ = 0.72, p < 0.05) and weight density (ρ = 0.66, p < 0.05). In contrast, the accumulation of other macroplastics showed few significant associations with the examined hydrological variables. This study provides the first quantitative estimate of the delivery ratio of agricultural mulch films from agricultural land to river systems. The annual delivery ratio of silver film ranged from 0.17% to 0.31%, with the highest value in the year for the lowest watershed abundance, indicating that delivery was not determined solely by abundance. In 2025, the delivery ratios were 0.18% for silver and 0.06% for black film, exhibiting the same order of magnitude despite a threefold difference in watershed abundance. These findings highlight the need for an abundance-based plastic mulch management strategy at the catchment scale.

Abstract: Clams represent an important part of the marine benthic community and as food sources for invertebrates (worms, amphipods), fish, and marine mammals. The purpose of this study was to examine the contamination and health status of feral Mya arenaria clam populations at sites of anthropogenic pollution (harbors), high residency Beluga whale area and a reference under no direct contact of pollution. Intertidal clams were collected for nanoplastics (NPs), dibutylphthalate (DBP), metal contamination and health status assessment. Health status consisted in the evaluation of oxidative stress, protein aggregation, esterase, carbonic anhydrase at the molecular level followed by morphological assessments (shell mass, condition factor, growth index) and resistance to air emersion. The data revealed that clams collected from polluted sites (marina and downstream urban cities) had elevated levels of NPs, DBP, Cd, Ce, Fe, Cu, Sn and Zn compared to a reference site. Surprisingly, the Beluga high residency area site was also contaminated by these contaminants (with the exception of Cd) especially for Sn, NPs and DBP. These clams contained elevated levels of peroxidase activity, protein aggregation, esterase, (mantle) carbonic anhydrase and accumulated lipids. The clams displayed at least at one polluted or whale residency site, decreased CF, shell mass ratio, air survival time and increased growth index. Cluster analysis revealed that the above contaminants were strongly associated with carbonic anhydrase, esterase, peroxidase and protein aggregation changes but less so towards morphological changes. In conclusion, feral clam populations are contaminated by plastics compounds including and shows signs of physiological stress as shown with reduced shell mass.

Abstract: As part of the Japanese multi-centered environmental toxicant study (JMETS), we performed health examinations on female farmers in two adjacent cadmium (Cd)-polluted areas in Akita prefecture, northern Japan. Health examinations were conducted in area A in 2001–2002 and in area B in 2003–2004. The level of Cd pollution was higher in area B than in area A. After the initiation of the flooding of paddy fields to reduce rice Cd concentrations in 2002, we conducted a follow-up study in 2006 and 2008 on the same farmers in areas A and B, respectively. Among the 725 and 438 farmers who participated in the first health examinations, 534 and 356 participated in the follow-up, with follow-up rates of 73.7 and 81.3% in areas A and B, respectively. Of these, we selected 763 eligible female farmers aged 34−83 years old in the follow-up for analysis. Cd concentrations in the farmers’ home-harvested rice markedly decreased, indicating a reduction in their Cd intake from rice. However, blood Cd levels did not change because the decrease in Cd intake may have been too small to affect high baseline blood Cd levels. On the other hand, urinary Cd levels increased and decreased from the lower and higher baseline levels of urinary Cd levels, respectively. Renal tubular function, indicated by urinary α1-microglobulin and ß2-microglobulin levels, remained unchanged; however, farmers ≥70 years with a baseline urinary Cd level ≥7 µg/g cr. had elevated urinary α1-microglobulin and ß2-microglobulin levels, indicating the deterioration of renal tubular function. Among them, 4 farmers had Cd nephropathy, presenting with rapid and marked increases in urinary ß2-microglobulin levels during the follow-up period. Collectively, these results provide a temporal picture of the sequential development of Cd nephropathy: an individual exposed to a high level of Cd for a long time develops renal tubular dysfunction gradually when older than 70 years, and Cd nephropathy then suddenly occurs and rapidly progresses.

Abstract: Wood-fired ovens used in pizzerias represent a potential source of air pollution, particularly in urban areas where they are most concentrated. The combination of wood combustion and cooking operations is a distinctive feature of these appliances and results in a unique emission profile. Local emission inventories indicate that restaurants and pizzerias with wood-fired ovens have a non-negligible contribution to the emission of several air pollutants, especially particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. This study presents an integrated framework combining data-driven source identification, experimentally measured emission factors, atmospheric dispersion modelling, and air-quality observations to assess the impact of wood-fired pizza ovens in the urban context of Milan (Italy). To validate and strengthen the robustness of the modelling framework, analogous simulations were also performed for road traffic and heating systems, representing the major urban emission sources, and compared with measurements from the ARPA Lombardia monitoring network. Results showed that wood-fired oven emissions are concentrated in the city center and can contribute appreciably to local primary particulate matter concentrations (0.085 – 3.34 µg m⁻³ PM₁₀). While their contribution to NO_x concentrations is limited (0.0044 - 1.75 µg m⁻³), simulations indicated a measurable influence on biomass-burning tracers, including levoglucosan (19.70 - 34.28%) and benzo(a)pyrene (34.95 - 37.47%). Overall, wood-fired pizza ovens are not a dominant source of urban air pollution but represent a relevant local contributor to particulate matter and combustion-related tracers.

Abstract: Microplastics are increasingly detected throughout food-production systems, from agricultural soils and irrigation waters to aquaculture environments, food-processing facilities, and final food products. Beyond their role as contaminants and microbial carriers, plastic particles provide persistent surfaces for biofilm development and may selectively shape the microorganisms and functional traits that persist during environmental transport. This review introduces an ecological-filter framework for understanding the microbiological significance of microplastics across food systems. We examine how polymer properties, conditioning films, weathering, environmental gradients, ecological succession, and colonization history interact to drive plastisphere assembly and microbial community turnover. Particular attention is given to the hypothesis that mature plastisphere biofilms may provide temporary microenvironmental buffering during transitions between physicochemically distinct environments, potentially facilitating microbial acclimation and selective persistence. We further evaluate evidence for the enrichment, expression, and horizontal transfer of antimicrobial resistance determinants within plastisphere communities and distinguish these processes from simple microbial carriage. Analytical approaches are critically examined through an evidence hierarchy spanning taxonomic detection, functional potential, transcriptional and protein expression, phenotype, food occurrence, and demonstrated health outcomes. Although current evidence supports selective microbial and resistome restructuring on microplastics, direct links between environmental plastisphere selection, persistence in food products, dietary exposure, and human-health effects remain limited. We therefore propose that microplastics in food systems should be considered dynamic ecological habitats undergoing sequential filtering rather than passive vectors carrying stable microbial communities. Integrating microbial ecology, multi-omics, spatial analyses, cultivation, and food-chain tracking will be essential to determine when plastisphere-mediated ecological selection translates into meaningful food-safety risk.

Abstract: Organic contaminants such as dyes, phenols, pesticides, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are widespread in water and wastewater, and are highly harmful to human health and the environment. Biochar, a solid carbon material derived from waste biomass under limited oxygen conditions, is a promising low-cost sustainable adsorbent for their removal. This review critically integrates recent advances in biochar preparation—feedstock selection, thermochemical conversion routes, activation, and modification—with the physicochemical properties that govern performance. Removal mechanisms are systematically analyzed, spanning adsorption (pore filling, hydrophobic partitioning, π–π electron donor–acceptor interactions, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction, cation bridging) and catalytic degradation mediated by persistent free radicals, persulfate/peroxymonosulfate activation, and photocatalysis. Key influencing factors (solution pH, temperature, coexisting ions, natural organic matter, dosage, particle size), regeneration, and engineering application are evaluated. Current challenges—heterogeneity and standardization, safety of biochar-borne hazardous constituents, performance in real matrices, and spent material management—and future directions, including machine-learning-assisted design and integrated treatment trains, are identified. This review aims to guide the rational design of biochar-based materials toward practical water and wastewater treatment.

Abstract: Road traffic is the main source of exposure to environmental noise in Europe and Directive 2002/49/EC requires the competent authorities to evaluate and manage it. In port cities, a significant portion of this exposure is generated by road traffic induced by ferry embarkation and disembarkation operations: a pulsating and highly non-stationary source, which standard forecasting methods, designed to return long-term average indicators, describe only in aggregate form. This work compares two forecasting approaches applied to the same waterfront of Olbia (Sardinia, Italy) and addresses a question of an operational rather than metrological nature: which model provides the information that a specific noise management decision actually needs. A physical model based on ISO 9613 and the CNOSSOS-EU methodology was implemented in CadnaA and calibrated on continuous monitoring data conducted in three receptor locations during a low and a high season. A non-linear autoregressive artificial neural network, developed and experimentally validated previously on the same waterfront, was used to predict the equivalent sound pressure level starting from vehicle flow data alone. The Lday, Levening and Lnight indicators returned by the two models are compared, together with the required input data, the spatial and temporal resolution, the latency and the installation and update costs over the five-year cycle of the strategic acoustic mapping. The differences between the two models reach 14 dB in low-flow night periods, while the calculation times vary between 3 and 36 h for the physical model versus an almost real-time inference for the neural one. The two approaches are complementary and not alternative: the physical model remains necessary for planning and for scenarios not yet implemented, while the operational and intraday management of noise in a ferry port is better served by data-driven prediction. The two models agree within 1 dB on average during the day and evening periods, whereas at night the neural model returns systematically higher levels, by 5.4 dB on average and by up to 14 dB, at all receiver positions and in both seasons.

Abstract: The Earthview BluBird continuous methane emissions-monitoring system participated in METEC single-blind ADED field testing in 2022 and 2024. The test program consisted of natural-gas releases ("experiments"), with each experiment comprised of one to five simultaneous releases. Results are categorized according to detection of at least one release per experiment ("per experiment" detection) and on detection of all releases. Ninety-seven percent of individual experiments were detected based on a report-and-release overlap criterion. Using METEC's standard criteria, 91% of experiments were detected, with a 69% detection rate for all releases. Un-detected releases during multi-release experiments, rather than un-detected experiments, account for the large majority of missed releases. Using the overlap criterion, the 90% probability of detection is 0.6 kg/h for per-experiment detection, and 3.9 kg/h for all releases. Source locations were correctly identified at the equipment group level for 76% of the experiments. Release start times and end times were accurate to within 30 minutes for 92% of the experiments. Actual and estimated methane emission mass summed over daily to monthly intervals correlate significantly, with BluBird underestimating mass by 26% for the full ADED 2024 period for single-release experiments. This underestimate is dominated by emission rate error rather than release detection capability.

Abstract: Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major traffic-related pollutant linked to adverse health outcomes, but existing methods for estimating indoor DE exposure fall short, as common surrogates like black carbon (BC), NOx, and PM2.5 are not sufficiently specific to diesel sources. 1-Nitropyrene (1-NP), a nitro-PAH preferentially formed during diesel combustion, has rarely been studied as an indoor exposure indicator. We measured 1-NP and isomeric nitro-PAHs (2-nitropyrene, 2-nitrofluoranthene) in indoor air and house dust from 40 homes in the eastern San Francisco Bay Area, CA, across two sampling events, alongside continuous indoor BC monitoring. We assessed 1-NP’s utility as a DE proxy using summary statistics, diagnostic nitro-PAH ratios, correlations with monitored pollutants, and single-predictor mixed-effects models relating 1-NP to spatial DE predictors. 1-NP was frequently detected in air (74%) and dust (97%), with median concentrations of 0.42 pg/m³ (IQR 0.32 - 0.54) and 340 pg/g (IQR 190 - 620), respectively. Air and dust 1-NP were moderately correlated (r=0.40, p = 0.02), as was BC with 1-NP (air r=0.38, dust r=0.47; p&lt;0.01). Diagnostic ratios (2-NFl:1-NP &lt;5) indicated dominant primary emission sources. Dust 1-NP showed numerous significant associations with spatial DE predictors, while air 1-NP showed fewer. Overall, 1-NP shows promise as a diesel-specific indoor exposure proxy integrating longer-term exposure and aligning with spatial DE predictors.

Abstract: Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has driven mercury contamination in tropical freshwater systems, yet integrated assessments of Southeast Asian oxbow lakes remain rare. This study quantified total mercury (THg) concentrations in water, sediment, and fish from Lake Hanjalutung, an ASGM-affected oxbow lake in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Water THg was higher in the dry season (26.13–42.66 ng/L) than the rainy season (8.20–24.05 ng/L), whereas lake interior sediment was more enriched during the rainy season. Geoaccumulation index (I_geo) values increased from the river channels to the lake interior (1.7–2.0, moderately to heavily contaminated), confirming that the lake acts as a mercury sink. Fish THg concentrations ranged from 0.16 to 1.51 mg/kg dw. Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) ranged from 5.3 × 10³ to 39.0 × 10³ L/kg, and biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAF) exceeded unity for all species, with both indices increasing significantly with body length, indicating body size as the primary driver of bioaccumulation. Maximum allowable weekly intake (MAWI) analysis showed that estimated regional consumption exceeded safe thresholds for all receptor groups, by 9- to 12-fold for one-year-old children and approximately 8-fold for pregnant women consuming W. leeri. Substituting with P. grootii consistently increased allowable intake by 3.5-fold, offering a practical, species-based risk reduction strategy for communities dependent on freshwater fish for protein.

Abstract: The decarbonization of transport and aviation sectors requires renewable fuels capable of reducing greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining compatibility with existing infrastructures. This review examines the technological evolution of renewable liquid fuels from biodiesel (FAME) to hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and sustainable aviation fuels (SAF), highlighting biodiesel as the industrial and technological foundation upon which the most mature hydrocarbon fuel pathways have been developed. Biodiesel established the feedstock supply chains, processing technologies, quality standards, and regulatory frameworks that subsequently enabled the emergence of HVO and HEFA-SAF. HVO represents a major advancement over biodiesel by converting lipid-based feedstocks into fully deoxygenated paraffinic hydrocarbons through hydrotreatment, thereby overcoming limitations related to stability, fuel quality, and engine compatibility. Building upon similar feedstocks and upgrading principles, SAF extends this evolution toward aviation applications through pathways such as HEFA, Fischer–Tropsch (FT), Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ), and Power-to-Liquid (PtL). The review integrates bibliometric analysis, fuel properties, combustion behavior, emission characteristics, production pathways, and techno-economic considerations. Results show that HVO research is largely focused on fuel upgrading and combustion optimization, whereas SAF research increasingly addresses system-level challenges, including feedstock availability, lifecycle emissions, renewable hydrogen production, and large-scale deployment. This transition reflects a broader shift from fuel-centered optimization to energy-system integration. Ultimately, the analysis suggests that SAF should be understood as the latest stage of a technological trajectory initiated by biodiesel, with future progress dependent on advances in renewable energy, hydrogen infrastructure, carbon management, and supportive policy frameworks.