Biology and Life Sciences

Abstract: White onion (Allium fistulosum L.) is an economically important crop whose productivity and commercial quality can be affected by fungal diseases. This study evaluated the in vitro sensitivity of Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp., Alternaria sp., and Ulocladium sp. to six fungicides with different modes of action: the demethylation inhibitors (DMIs) tebuconazole and mefentrifluconazole, the quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs) pyraclostrobin and azoxystrobin, and the methyl benzimidazole carbamates (MBCs) thiophanate-methyl and thiabendazole. Fungicides were incorporated into potato dextrose agar (PDA) at concentrations of 0, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 500 ppm, and sensitivity was assessed based on mycelial growth rate (MGR) and median effective concentration (EC₅₀). Fungicide concentration significantly affected MGR (p < 0.05) in most fungus–fungicide combinations, although the magnitude of the response varied among fungal isolates and active ingredients. Fusarium sp. was highly sensitive to tebuconazole (EC₅₀ = 0.10 µg mL⁻¹), thiophanate-methyl (0.02 µg mL⁻¹), and thiabendazole (0.11 µg mL⁻¹), whereas Alternaria sp. showed high sensitivity to mefentrifluconazole (0.019 µg mL⁻¹), azoxystrobin (0.01 µg mL⁻¹), and pyraclostrobin (0.04 µg mL⁻¹). Penicillium sp. was highly sensitive to tebuconazole (0.07 µg mL⁻¹) and azoxystrobin (0.06 µg mL⁻¹), but showed markedly reduced sensitivity to mefentrifluconazole (749.53 µg mL⁻¹). Ulocladium sp. exhibited variable responses, ranging from high sensitivity to azoxystrobin (0.10 µg mL⁻¹) and thiabendazole (0.32 µg mL⁻¹) to moderate sensitivity to tebuconazole (7.46 µg mL⁻¹), pyraclostrobin (8.81 µg mL⁻¹), and thiophanate-methyl (6.90 µg mL⁻¹). Overall, the results demonstrated substantial fungus–fungicide-specific variation, including differences between active ingredients belonging to the same FRAC group. These findings provide baseline information for fungicide sensitivity monitoring and support the rational rotation of fungicides with different modes of action for sustainable disease management in white onion production.

Abstract: Ceratonia siliqua is a promising species for the restoration of degraded ecosystems in Mediterranean and North African arid regions, but its seeds exhibit low and irregular germination, limiting natural regeneration and large-scale restoration efforts. This study evaluated the effects of exogenous glutathione (GSH; 0, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μM) on carob seed germination under different water and salt stress levels (0, −0.5, −1.0, and −1.6 MPa). Germination performance was assessed using final germination percentage, mean germination time, germination index, vigour index, and GR₅₀, while hydrotime analysis was used to characterize germination responses to water and salt stress. Moderate GSH concentrations (25–50 μM) significantly improved germination performance, with the fastest germination recorded at 25 and 50 μM (GR₅₀ = 2.62 and 2.65, respectively). Under non-stress conditions, 50 μM GSH produced the highest germination percentage, whereas 25 μM was most effective under stress conditions. Hydrotime analysis further supported the beneficial effect of 25 μM GSH, which was associated with lower Ψb(50) and θH values. Low GSH concentrations also increased germination and vigour indices and reduced mean germination time, whereas higher concentrations (100–200 μM) had limited or inhibitory effects. Overall, moderate GSH application, particularly 25 μM under stress, improved carob seed germination under water and salt stress.

Abstract: Dehydration, high salt concentrations and extreme high or low temperatures are just a few of the environmental issues that inhibit plant growth and development. The most significant issue facing agriculture globally is salinity. The amount of land that can be cultivated on Earth is greatly influenced by salinity. In plants, it interacts with osmotic pressure, ionic levels, and the effects of oxidative stress. Plants use defence mechanisms such as antioxidant systems, osmotic control, and ion maintenance of equilibrium to deal with these problems. A strategy that may be able to help with these issues is nanotechnology. Plant resilience is increased by nanoparticles (NPs) through maintaining the efficiency of photosynthesis, regulation of stress-responsive genes, and improvement of antioxidant properties. By preserving photosynthesis, boosting antioxidant capacity, and controlling stress-responsive genes, nanoparticles (NPs) help plants become more resilient. NPs including ZnO-NPs, Fe-NPs and TiO2-NPs, can enhance plant growth and stress tolerance, delivers a cost-effective way and sustainable approach to mitigate salinity stress and increase the output of agriculture. The usage of nanotechnology in farming improves environmental sustainability and helps global food security in addition to addressing salinity-related problems.

Abstract:

Perennial plant ecotypes exhibit adaptive functional traits associated with abiotic stress tolerance linked to their origin. This study hypothesized that F. gracillima displays ecotypic variation which employ different shoot-root compensation mechanisms to sustain plant growth and development. A common-environment experiment was used to examine the adaptive traits of F. gracillima accessions. Destructive sampling was performed at six development stages, while non-destructive measurements were taken biweekly (roots) and every 2 days (shoots) from six pots per accession The development stages were: (i) seedling, (ii) one fully expanded leaf, (iii) two fully expanded leaves, (iv) three fully expanded leaves, (v) early senescence, and (vi) one fully senesced leaf. A factorial design with 6 developmental stages×2 accessions × 6 replicates were used. The steppe accession had greater fine root length percentage, smaller root diameter, longer single roots, fewer roots, slower rhizochron (i.e., slower root appearance rate) and faster leaf phyllochron (i.e., faster leaf appearance rate). Phenotypic differences between accessions support the existence of ecotypic variation. The steppe accession combined acquisitive and conservative traits, indicating multidimensional trait variation rather than a single acquisitive–conservative strategy. Additionally, asynchronous leaf and root tissue appearance rates suggest partial decoupling between above and belowground development.

Abstract: The Lycoris aurea (L’Hér.) Herb. complex—valued for its medicinal properties and horticultural applications—is characterized by extensive intraspecific dysploidy. However, a comprehensive molecular cytogenetic framework elucidating intraspecific karyotypic differentiation and the underlying evolutionary mechanisms has yet to be established. By integrating fluorochrome banding with 5S and 45S rDNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), we performed a comparative molecular cytogenetic karyotyping of 20 natural populations spanning 13 provinces in China and synthesized these results with previously published cytogenetic data to conduct a rigorous cytogeographic assessment of this species. Three distinct cytotypes were identified: cytotype A (2n = 14 = 8m + 6t/st), cytotype B (2n = 15 = 7m + 8t/st), and cytotype C (2n = 16 = 6m + 10t/st). Both multivariate karyomorphometric analyses and comparison of DAPI banding and rDNA FISH patterns revealed minimal inter-population karyotypic variation in cytotype A but pronounced intra-cytotypic karyotypic polymorphism in cytotype C. Integrated cytogenetic evidence supports Robertsonian translocation as the primary mechanism driving dysploidy in the L. aurea complex: cytotype C is inferred as the ancestral karyotype, from which cytotype A arose through double Robertsonian fusions and cytotype B through a single such fusion, establishing two parallel, evolutionarily independent lineages. The parapatric partitioning of the three cytotypes is interpreted as the outcome of synergistic effects among Quaternary climatic oscillations, topographic barriers, and ecological niche divergence.

Abstract: Coal mining in Zimbabwe significantly contributes to its economy, but it harms the environment by releasing toxic elements. We investigated the bioconcentration of harmful elements in the Hwange coal mining area in order to ascertain the efficacy of the aquatic plant Typha latifolia in bioaccumulating various toxic elements. Water, plant and sediment samples were collected during dry and wet seasons from 4 sites and physico-chemical parameters of water were measured on-site. A pH range of 1.79 - 8.32 and 2.13 – 6.56 was observed during the wet and dry season respectively. Elevated TDS and conductivity levels were observed with a site recording figures of 1.20 ppt and 2.41 mS/cm respectively. The samples were analysed for copper, lead, zinc and cadmium concentration and the bioconcentration factor of toxic elements from sediment to plants. Copper and zinc concentrations observed were higher in the wet season compared to the dry season for plant samples. In contrast, water and sediment samples had higher concentrations of copper and zinc in the dry season compared to the wet season. The study showed the lowest bioconcentration factors of zinc, while the highest bioconcentration factors were for lead and cadmium. In summary, this study verified Typha latifolia’s capacity to accumulate cadmium from the environment and its ability to accumulate lead, which may be enhanced by changes in environmental conditions.

Abstract: Vitamin E is an essential dietary nutrient, yet deficiency affects large populations, especially in ricedependent developing countries. To dissect the genetic basis of grain vitamin E content in rice, we performed a genomewide association study (GWAS) on a diverse panel of 533 rice accessions. A major locus, VEQ2, was identified on chromosome 2, where the CC genotype significantly increased αtocopherol content compared with the TT genotype. We developed a kompetitive allelespecific PCR (KASP) marker for VEQ2 and validated its effect in an F₂ population derived from Baikezaohe (TT) and AKITAKOMACHI (CC), confirming semidominant inheritance. Through markerassisted backcrossing, we introgressed VEQ2 into an elite indica background, generating nearisogenic lines. The CC introgression lines exhibited α-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol levels that were approximately 1.86- and 5.28-fold those of the control, respectively, accompanied by reduced β-tocopherol, whereas the TT lines displayed the opposite metabolic profile, with no significant penalties in agronomic traits. Analysis of 4,726 accessions revealed strong subspecies differentiation: TT was predominant in indica (84.2%), whereas CC was nearly fixed in japonica (99.5%). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that VEQ2 serves as a key genetic switch modulating the rice vitamin E metabolic profile and represents a promising target for biofortification of indica rice without compromising yield.

Abstract: This paper presents photographic records of orchids observed along the trail of Mt. Opao, Igbaras, Panay Island, Philippines. At least seven species were documented, including four terrestrial taxa and three epiphytes. Moreover, photographic evidence of Appendicula laxifolia represents a new island record for Panay, extending the species’ known distribution. The documentation was conducted during a hiking event in August 2026 and highlights the value of mobile photography and community‑accessible digital platforms for rapid biodiversity documentation and for detecting range extensions that inform conservation and biogeographic research.

Abstract: Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food crop globally, and identifying genes governing grain yield is critical for food security. Although heat shock proteins (HSPs) are known for their roles in stress tolerance, the molecular mechanisms by which they regulate yield formation remain unclear. In this study, we generated knockout and overexpression lines for OsHSP20 (encoding a member of the Hsp20/alpha crystallin family, LOC_Os10g30162.1. It is also one of the four candidate genes discovered during our fine mapping of major QTLs for photosynthetic rate in rice.) and performed integrated analyses combining field phenotyping, multi-stress assays, and transcriptomics. Phenotypic analyses revealed that OsHSP20 deficiency resulted in compromised plant architecture, leaf morphology, tillering, and panicle development, leading to a significant reduction in grain setting rate; Conversely, OsHSP20 overexpression enhanced drought tolerance. Mechanistically, transcriptomic and functional analyses demonstrated that OsHSP20 maintains protein homeostasis under drought stress via its chaperone activity, this function orchestrates a coordinated regulatory network involving lipid barrier formation, antioxidant defense, and carbon allocation. Our findings establish OsHSP20 as a positive regulator of both yield and drought resilience, improving crop adaptability by balancing growth and stress responses; In addition, our previous research has shown that OsHSP20 is actually one of the important components of the main QTL for rice photosynthetic rate. Therefore, this study can provide new genetic resources and theoretical basis for cultivating rice varieties with high-yield, stress resistant, and high photosynthetic rate.

Abstract: Plant grafting is a significant horticultural technique that enables the combination of desirable traits such as enhanced resilience, disease resistance, and productivity. Despite its widespread application, the mechanisms underlying graft compatibility remain poorly understood. Because grafting is largely an anthropogenic process, plants are unlikely to have evolved mechanisms specifically to recognize graft partners. Here, we propose that graft compatibility is not controlled by a dedicated recognition system, but instead emerges from the balance between existing tissue regeneration and immune surveillance pathways that evolved in other plant-plant interactions. We synthesize evidence from inter-plant communication, parasitic interactions, and damage-associated molecular pattern signaling (DAMPs) to show that these systems converge on conserved mechanisms regulating non-self perception, tissue regeneration, and long-distance communication. This evolutionary framework explains diverse observations across graft biology and provides a foundation for developing strategies to expand graft compatibility across economically important crops.

Abstract: Counter-arguing against the proposition that homology between the coleoptile and the leaf sheath is impossible because a sheath cannot be located above the lamina of the same leaf (Mavrodiev 2025), while defending the bipartite interpretation of the grass cotyledon (BIGC), Scanlon et al. (2026) advance five principal objections: (1) during embryo ontogeny, the coleoptile initiates proximal to the initiation point of the distal scutellum; (2) the coleoptile must be part of the cotyledon because of embryo distichy; (3) tissue continuity between the scutellum and coleoptile supports the interpretation that these two structures together constitute a single composite organ, the cotyledon; (4) BOP1a marker expression in coleoptile supports coleoptile-sheath homology; and (5) ligule and leaf-sheath homologies of the coleoptile are compatible because the ligule represents an extension of the sheath margin. In this response, I show that all five objections are incorrect. (1) Along the embryo's morphological axis, rather than the proximodistal axis of the cotyledon, the coleoptile occupies a position distal relative to the scutellum, thus lying above the latter. (2) The disruption of embryonic distichous phyllotaxy by the placement of the coleoptile does not necessarily constitute a morphological argument, and the interpretation of the epiblast as a reduced leaf preserves embryo distichy. (3) Tissue continuity does not imply organ identity. (4) BOP1a expression in coleoptile provides evidence against, rather than in support of the BIGC. (5) Coleoptile-leaf sheath homology does not constitute evidence for coleoptile-ligule homology (or vice versa). Moreover, the claim that the ligule originates from the sheath margin remains open to question because it is formulated without consideration of the basipetal pattern of maize leaf maturation. The reply to Objection 1 affects the very foundation of the argument of Scanlon et al. (2026). Therefore, further discussion on the topic is optional (sublato fundamento, cadit tota propositio).

Abstract: Repeated drought–rehydration episodes expose perennial fruit trees to alternating stress and recovery phases, while treatment-level averages can obscure genotype-specific response strategies. We evaluated seven biochemical markers in fourteen apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) genotypes during two consecutive drought–rehydration cycles: proline, malondialdehyde (MDA), total phenolics, total flavonoids, and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POX). Both drought cycles increased all measured markers, with the strongest overall response at the end of the second drought cycle (T6). Relative to the control, mean values at T6 increased by 272.4% for proline, 136.4% for MDA, 45.3% for total phenolics, 76.5% for total flavonoids, 109.1% for SOD, 89.0% for CAT, and 117.5% for POX. Genotype-specific log₂(Stress/Control) profiles at the first (T2) and second (T6) drought maxima revealed contrasting combinations of osmotic adjustment, oxidative damage, antioxidant-enzyme activity, and secondary-metabolite accumulation. B11 combined comparatively low MDA induction with strong antioxidant-enzyme responses, whereas HL1282 and HL1579 showed lower proline and MDA induction together with stronger phenolic, flavonoid, and selected enzyme responses. In contrast, ‘Idared’ showed strong proline and MDA induction. The first two principal components explained 75.1% of the total variance. Overall, the results identify distinct genotype-specific biochemical response strategies and show that coordinated marker profiles provide substantially more information than individual biomarkers or treatment averages alone.

Abstract: International quality standards for biocide treated wood were developed in early twentieth century, but none for wood modification, including thermally modified wood (TMW). The Nordic Wood Protection Council (NWPC) offers a regional standard for industrially protected modified wood in the Nordic Countries [1]. Standards for product quality are important components of all mature industries, and ongoing efforts for standard development are currently being made in the wood modification industry [2]. A key component of any quality system is its control parameters, i.e. metrics used for process and product control and product quality improvement. For exterior wood-based products, resistance to fungal attack is the most important quality property. Existing metrics for biocide treated wood are not meaningful for TMW, and different alternative metrics have been discussed in literature. An overlooked aspect in this discussion is variation in product quality, in this case variation in decay resistance. Quality metrics without criteria for acceptable deviations are unfit for purpose, and quality cannot be improved without understanding causes for variation in product quality. Decay resistance of thermally modified wood is widely believed to be related to reduction of wood cell wall moisture capacity. Using a large dataset comprising 9 species, we further explore the presence of decay resistance threshold related to equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and moisture exclusion efficiency (MEE). We also explore the extent and cause of variance in threshold decay resistance. The purpose of the paper is to further develop a scientific basis for using EMC as a technology independent quality parameter in industrial quality management and improvement systems and in the development of international standards.

Abstract: The Thai-Malay Peninsula, a biodiversity hotspot at the boundary between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, possesses a complex geological history that has shaped the diversity and distribution of benthic marine flora in this region. Yet, phylogeographic understanding of macroalgae along the Andaman Sea coast remains limited. Here, we investigated population genetics and demographic history of the ecologically and economically important red seaweed Halymenia durvillei along the Andaman coast of Thailand. Mitochondrial cox1 and chloroplast rbcL sequences from 333 specimens across 20 sites revealed low genetic diversity (11 and 4 haplotypes, respectively) and a lack of pronounced population structure. A single dominant haplotype per marker was restricted to Phuket Island and Phang Nga. Analysis of variance (AMOVA) revealed no significant genetic differentiation between the Myanmar Shelf and the Malacca Strait Shelf, with most of the variation (90.28%–98.63%) partitioned within populations. However, gene-flow estimates revealed significantly asymmetric migration among populations, with most sites functioning as both sources and sinks of migrants, broadly consistent with the dispersal mediated by ocean currents during the northeast monsoon season. Bayesian Skyline Plot analysis revealed a sharp demographic contraction during the early middle Miocene, followed by a progressive expansion since the early Pleistocene. The presence of endemic haplotypes in the northern Malacca Strait (Tankhen Bay, Phuket) suggests this area likely served as a marine refugium during glacial maximal low stands. In brief, phylogeographic homogeneity of H. durvillei along the Andaman Sea reflects the combined effects of glacial bottlenecks during glacial sea-level fluctuations and postglacial recolonization driven by ocean circulations. These results provide a phylogeographic baseline for conservation prioritization, highlighting populations with unique genetic diversity as candidates for in-situ protection and integration into protected area networks under climate warming.

Abstract: Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development, yet its availability in many soils is limited by strong chemical fixation and low mobility. Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis provides an important biological strategy for improving plant phosphate acquisition by establishing specialized arbuscules within root cortical cells, where reciprocal nutrient exchange occurs across the periarbuscular membrane. Among the phosphate transporter families involved in this process, the mycorrhiza-specific PHT1 transporters PT4 in Medicago truncatula and PT11 in Oryza sativa have emerged as central components of the mycorrhizal phosphate uptake pathway and are essential for the establishment and maintenance of functional arbuscules. Increasing evidence suggests that PT4/PT11 function extends beyond phosphate transport itself, linking phosphate acquisition with arbuscule development, nutrient exchange, and symbiotic stability. In this review, we summarize current knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying PT4/PT11 function and regulation during AM symbiosis. We first compare mycorrhiza-specific and mycorrhiza-inducible phosphate transporters across plant species and discuss their localization, transport properties, and contributions to the mycorrhizal Pi uptake pathway. We then integrate the multilayered regulatory network controlling PT4/PT11 expression, including the common symbiosis signaling pathway, calcium-dependent signaling, CYCLOPS–RAM1-centered transcriptional regulation, AP2/ERF-family regulators, hormone signaling, and systemic phosphate-sensing pathways. Particular attention is given to the functional coordination between phosphate uptake and other components of reciprocal nutrient exchange, including carbon and lipid transfer, proton extrusion, and arbuscule development. We further discuss how disruption of PT4/PT11-mediated phosphate transport affects arbuscule integrity and may alter the physiological and signaling status of the plant–fungus interface. Based on available genetic, physiological, and molecular evidence, we propose a working model in which PT4/PT11-mediated phosphate uptake contributes to maintaining a favorable phosphate environment at the periarbuscular interface, thereby supporting continued nutrient exchange and arbuscule longevity. Importantly, this model remains to be experimentally validated, particularly with respect to the mechanisms linking interfacial phosphate status to fungal nutrient release and host–fungus signaling. Finally, we highlight emerging approaches, including single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, proteomics, proximity labeling, and genome editing, that may resolve the cell-type-specific functions and molecular interactomes of PT4/PT11. Understanding these mechanisms may provide a conceptual and practical foundation for exploiting AM symbiosis to improve phosphorus-use efficiency, reduce dependence on mineral phosphate fertilizers, and develop more sustainable crop production systems.

Abstract: Due to the escalating impacts of climate change, a new physicochemical stressor, UV-B radiation, has emerged in the biosphere. Mankind and plants are facing the adverse impacts of harmful UV-B radiation. Although crop yields are affected by UV-B stress, the precise nature of these effects remains unclear, and predictions about how rice crops will respond to UV-B radiation stress are uncertain. Environmental stressors related to UV-B do not act in isolation but can interact in complex ways. The stressors could exhibit opposing, cumulative, or synergistic effects. The synergistic interactions can cause more damage than expected. Multiple studies have shown that UV-B exposure and reactive oxygen species production are closely linked. The increasing production of reactive oxygen species damages proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids and impairs their structures and functions. The stress reduces biomass accumulation, plant height, photosynthetic efficiency, and leaf area expansion in sensitive species. UV-B resilience in plants occurs through a combination of physiological responses and signalling pathways. The acclimation process triggered by UV-B exposure involves the synthesis of specific metabolites, including proline, flavonoids, anthocyanins, unsaturated fatty acids, and several antioxidants. These metabolites are known to protect against UV-B radiation by directly screening excessive light energy and supporting repair mechanisms. Despite numerous studies, there is no consensus on how to produce a sustainable rice crop under climate change-induced conditions. Among rice genotypes, UV-B sensitivity is species-specific; some heirloom cultivars are more tolerant than high-yielding rice varieties. This trait is linked to the agricultural niche where the landraces are cultivated. It is noted that tolerance to UV-B stress in some heirloom cultivars from western Odisha is unique and has been inherited through generations of cultivation in the area. The tolerance arises from various defence mechanisms developed over time in their native environment, such as the accumulation of non-enzymatic antioxidant flavonoid compounds in plant organs. The review offers an in-depth discussion of this subject to ascertain the potential role of these rice cultivars in ensuring food security for consumers under climate change.

Abstract: Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam (wild jujube) leaves are traditionally used in Moroccan medicine to treat hypertension. The present study evaluated the aqueous extract of Z. lotus leaves (ZLAqExt) for its vasorelaxant effects, mechanisms of action, acute toxicity, antioxidant potential, and phytochemical profile. In phenylephrine-precontracted rat aortic rings, the ZLAqExt induced concentration-dependent relaxation (Emax = 79.25 ± 2.77% at 10⁻¹ mg/mL). The mechanism of action was investigated using specific antagonists and blockers. Complete inhibition by endothelium denudation, and preincubation with L-NAME, hydroxocobalamin, ODQ, and thapsigargin confirmed endothelium-dependent nitric ox-ide (NO)/cyclic GMP (cGMP)/sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA) path-way involvement. A partial inhibition by BaCl₂, indomethacin, calmidazolium, and KCl indicated cyclooxygenase (COX), endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF), and inward-rectifier potassium (Kir) channel contributions. Acute oral toxicity did not show any mortality at 2 g/kg BW in mice. The extract displayed potent antioxidant activity (DPPH IC₅₀: 18.12 ± 1.49 µg/mL; β-carotene bleaching IC₅₀: 8.3 ± 0.014 µg/mL). UHPLC-ESI-MS identified rutin as the major compound, followed by 3',5'-di-C-β-glucopyranosyl phloretin with high docking affinity for guanylate cyclase and SERCA pump. The presence of flavonoids in the ZLAqExt might have mediated its vaso-relaxant effects, supporting its traditional use as an antihypertensive. Our results high-light that Z. lotus is a potential natural therapeutic agent against vascular dysfunc-tion-related cardiovascular disorders.

Abstract: Plants cannot flee unfavorable conditions, so they must sense and respond to physical and biotic stress from within a single cell. Biomolecular condensates — protein- and RNA-rich assemblies formed by phase separation — have emerged as a unifying mechanism that lets plant cells convert continuous physical cues such as heat, drought and pathogen attack into discrete, reversible biochemical switches. This mini review synthesizes recent structural, biophysical and genetic evidence on how plant condensates assemble, how they sense the environment, how they are exploited and subverted during infection, and how they organize RNA processing and membrane remodeling.

Abstract: The basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH) gene family is one of the largest transcription factor families in plants and plays essential roles in growth, development, and responses to environmental stresses. However, the members and functional characteristics of the bHLH gene family in Cucurbita pepo L. remain largely unclear. In this study, a total of 175 bHLH genes were identified in Cucurbita pepo L., exhibiting considerable variation in protein length and structural features. Phylogenetic analysis classified these genes into 24 subgroups (Subgroup 1–24), with conserved motif compositions within each subgroup but clear divergence among different subfamilies, indicating functional differentiation. Gene duplication analysis revealed that whole-genome duplication (WGD) was the primary driving force underlying the expansion of the bHLH gene family. Cis-regulatory element analysis showed that CpbHLH genes are mainly associated with light responsiveness, as well as plant growth and developmental processes. Furthermore, RNA-seq and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analyses demonstrated that CpbHLH genes exhibit tissue-specific expression patterns and dynamic responses to cold stress, suggesting their potential roles in flower development and stress adaptation. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive overview of the CpbHLH gene family and lays a solid foundation for future functional characterization.

Abstract: Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a major horticultural crop for which genetic transformation and genome editing could accelerate functional genomics and precision breeding, but their routine use remains constrained by regeneration recalcitrance, strong genotype dependence, and fragmented methodological reporting. This review critically assesses Agrobacterium-mediated transformation protocols, genome-editing studies, and emerging in planta virus-based approaches across the complete workflow, from explant preparation and nucleic-acid delivery to regeneration, selection, plant recovery, and outcome assessment. The major variables shaping transformation success are examined, including explant type and age, pre-culture, bacterial strain, infection and co-culture conditions, acetosyringone, regeneration medium, selection pressure, shoot recovery, rooting, and efficiency assessment. The evidence indicates that reported performance differences are difficult to interpret because studies often rely on genotype-specific optimization, incomplete methodological description, and non-equivalent efficiency metrics. Complementary strategies are also discussed, including virus-induced gene silencing, virus-induced gene editing, biolistics, protoplast delivery, floral dip-inspired approaches, highly regenerable model genotypes, and morphogenic regulators. Finally, the review outlines priorities to move eggplant biotechnology from proof-of-concept toward reproducible breeding pipelines: standardized reporting, direct protocol comparisons, genotype-aware optimization, mechanistic studies of recalcitrance, and transformation-competent reference lines. Although centered on eggplant, the methodological framework and reporting priorities identified here are relevant to other horticultural crops in which genotype-dependent regeneration limits genome engineering. Together, these priorities provide a roadmap from isolated proof-of-concept experiments to reproducible and breeding-relevant genome-editing pipelines.