Physical Sciences

Abstract: Photony Theory proposes that an electron is not an elementary structure unrelated to light but a localized organization of a high-energy classical photon. Its two interlinked elemental chargephoton constituents continue indexing through quasi-static Planck Space, while an additional c-spin redirects the gamma-ray photon’s forward propagation into a toroidal circulation with a localized center of energy. This article develops that interpretation as the electron companion to A Photony Interpretation of Photons. It separates the proposed internal circulation from experimentally established electron rest mass, charge, spin, magnetic moment, transport, and matter-wave behavior. A substantial examination of electron double-slit experiments emphasizes knife-edge diffraction, aperture boundaries, slit thickness, and the distinct roles of single-slit diffraction and coherent two-slit interference. The established intensity relations and the controlled single- and double-slit measurements are treated as quantitative constraints rather than being replaced by an unsupported, purely geometrical explanation. Electron-mediated chain transduction, reduction, atomic excitation, and thermal coupling are integrated into the structural account. The paper identifies which predictions follow from the Photony hypotheses, which remain conditional, and which require a new electron-boundary dynamical law. The resulting formulation connects photon and electron structure while preserving the empirical demands of quantum mechanics and electromagnetism.

Abstract: Energy is identified in Photony Theory with physical photon organization rather than with an independent, featureless substance. The proposed fundamental energy carriers are elemental charge photons, each formed from an indexed energy filament in discrete, quasi-static Planck Space. Interlinking two elemental constituents produces the classical photon, while their larger, confined organizations are proposed to constitute mass. Within this account, a gamma-ray classical photon that acquires an additional c-spin becomes a localized toroidal electron rather than continuing in linear forward motion. Extended electric and magnetic chains represent further organization of the same elemental structures. This article develops a coherent photon model from that premise. It specifies the distinction between static, dynamic, chain-bound, and free-photon states; develops the proposed geometry and motion of the classical-photon chainlet; and relates constituent organization to photon frequency, momentum, polarization, propagation, emission, and interaction with matter. An electric/magnetic constituent-energy account is constrained to reproduce the single measured photon energy, without double counting. A characteristic chain-to-chainlet rate near 37.6 THz is calculated from the cubic mass-scaling relation developed in earlier Photony work; its structural interpretation is considered separately from the existence of lower-frequency quantum photons. Related geometrical and electromagnetic photon models are compared to clarify what is distinctive about Photony. Established electromagnetic and quantum results are retained as quantitative benchmarks, and unresolved dynamical requirements are identified. The resulting framework prepares the corresponding study of electron emergence and the development of Photony Compendium Volume VII.

Abstract: Laser-generated plasma antennas unite optical ionization, free-electron response, externally driven radio-frequency excitation, transient plasma currents, and electromagnetic propagation. This article reviews the experimentally established mechanisms while developing a detailed structural interpretation grounded in the Photony Mathematical Compendium and Photony Electromagnetic Compendium. The historical literature includes discharge-supported plasma radiators, laser-driven microwave and terahertz emissions, wake and surface-wave propagation, and a 2026 capacitively fed plasma column transmitting at 30 MHz. Maxwell electrodynamics and established plasma transport remain the quantitative foundations. The Photony interpretation distinguishes elemental charge-photon energy populations from their electron transducers, static and dynamic photon states, electric and magnetic chain formation, chain reduction, and pinch-off under alternating excitation, and the organization of guided and radiated energy. A graded plasma boundary is interpreted without imposing the ideal surface geometry of a metal conductor. Chain-population continuity relations are compared with Poynting energy conservation, while the difference between microscopic interpretation and independently demonstrated physics is maintained. The resulting account treats ordinary RF radiation, optical ionization, and threshold breakdown as different processes and situates plasma antennas within a broader structural reading of electromagnetic energy transport.

Abstract: Plasma stealth proposes that ionized matter located near an electromagnetic scatterer can change the reflection, transmission, scattering, and absorption of incident radar-frequency radiation. The concept has a substantial history in laboratory plasma electrodynamics, computational scattering studies, and widely publicized but incompletely verified aerospace claims. This article separates the conventional physics of weakly magnetized, collisional plasma from a proposed Photony interpretation based on elemental charge photons, electron-mediated transduction, electric and magnetic chains, and the continuity of organized electromagnetic energy transport. A plasma is not inherently an absorber: its response depends on free-electron density, collision frequency, spatial gradients, ionization history, and the incident wave, and some configurations can increase rather than decrease radar scattering. Conventional analysis develops charge continuity, electron-momentum response, complex permittivity, propagation, interfacial reflection, energy balance, and the distinction between local attenuation and a measured radar cross section. The Photony analysis then considers how incident radiation might be interpreted in terms of boundary-associated electric-chain organization and current-associated magnetic-chain transduction while retaining Maxwell equations as the measurable standard. Ordinary absorption, reversible polarization, and mode conversion are kept separate from the proposed magnetic-breakdown threshold. The resulting study is a comparative theoretical interpretation, not a demonstration of a functioning aircraft stealth system or an experimental verification of Photony’s microscopic structures.

Abstract: Laser-generated plasma antennas and magnetically active solar plasma occupy sharply different ener-getic and geometrical regimes, yet both involve mobile charges, organized currents, electromagnetic energy transport, and radiation. This article presents a comparative analysis of those common mecha-nisms while maintaining the essential distinction between a plasma antenna driven by an external radio-frequency source and a solar flare powered predominantly by previously accumulated magnetic free energy. The literature on laser-plasma radio-frequency coupling, plasma-bound surface waves, solar magnetic structures, and reconnection supplies the conventional quantitative foundation. The analysis then develops a Photony interpretation based on static and dynamic elemental charge pho-tons, electron-mediated electric- and magnetic-chain transduction, chain continuity, fibril organization, reduction, reassignment, and magnetic breakdown. The theory’s proposed microscopic structures are distinguished from the measured electron, current, field, and radiation quantities of established plasma physics. Special attention is given to the difference between a laser-produced gas filament and a magnetically organized solar fibril, the contrast between ordinary alternating-current reversal and threshold-driven structural failure, and the conservation of energy across the two regimes. The result is a comparative theoretical account rather than a report of new experiments or a claim that ordinary antenna radiation demonstrates solar magnetic breakdown.

Abstract: Radiation synthesis differs from known methods in its high rate of energy input. Radiation energy is instantly introduced into the entire volume of the charge, which is 6 to 12 mm thick, depending on the electron energy. The introduced energy is used to create electronic excitations, the relaxation of which results in the formation of a new material, IAG: Ceramics made from Y₂O₃ and Al₂O₃ powders with a Ce₂O₃ activator. The overall ceramic formation process is independent of electron energy in the range of 1.4–2.5 MeV. The efficiency of radiation synthesis of IAG: Ceramics depends on the power density of the electron flux incident on the surface of the treated charge and the duration of radiation treatment. There is a clearly defined threshold for the power density of the electron flux above which synthesis occurs: that is, the density of the generated electronic excitations and radiolysis products upon decay must exceed the threshold values. The morphology of the synthesized ceramic is determined by the irradiation time. When the irradiation time of the feedstock is less than 1 s, the outer surface has time to solidify, resulting in a ceramic with large pores. When the irradiation time of the feedstock exceeds 5 s, the porosity of the resulting ceramic is much lower.

Abstract: Large underground particle-physics facilities are usually discussed by separating scientific performance from the systems that make their operation safe. We develop a complementary view in which safety is treated as an intrinsic part of the physical and operational structure of an experiment. Using the LHC, ATLAS, and CMS as principal case studies, we introduce the concepts of physics in safety and safety in physics: physical laws, measurements, and models determine hazards and protective barriers, while those barriers in turn define the machine, detector, access, and intervention states in which physics can be performed. We formulate this relation through a safe operational phase space and through admissible trajectories connecting different configurations, emphasizing that safety constrains not only states but also transitions between them. The framework is applied to beam and magnet protection, cryogenic and oxygen-deficiency hazards, detector-specific risk configurations, personnel access, maintenance, and radiation protection, with particular attention to the different architectures of ATLAS and CMS. We argue that validated protection does not merely restrict scientific activity but can enlarge the domain of sustainable operation. This viewpoint provides a unified physical and operational framework for understanding safety at the LHC and for incorporating protection, maintainability, and recoverability into the design of future accelerator and underground facilities such as HL-LHC, FCC and muon collider.

Abstract: A prolate spheroidal model of axisymmetric hollow ellipsoid is usually used for the analytical estimation of magnetic signature of ships and vessels. To overcome several limitations of the model such as the rotational symmetry, a general solution of the problem for a triaxial ellipsoid without the rotational symmetry is presented. The true analytical solution is derived in terms of elliptic integrals of the first and second kind. The presented solution is validated by the comparison with the results from a finite element analysis. The ellipsoidal system of coordinates implies that the outer and inner surfaces of a hollow ellipsoid are confocal. This leads to the analytical model of vessel hull with a variable wall thickness. The thickness variation depends on the hull aspect ratio, and it may lead to an inaccurate estimation of the magnetic signature. To overcome this limitation, the hollow ellipsoidal body with the non-confocal outer and inner surfaces is also considered, so that the thickness of the vessel hull is the same in all directions. The magnetic signature in this case can be significantly different from the case of the hollow ellipsoid with the confocal surfaces. In addition to the magnetic field outside the ellipsoid, the field inside the wall and in the cavity is analyzed. As a result of this analysis the formulas for the shielding effectiveness and magnetic moment are derived and validated. Also, cases of an axial symmetry when the triaxial ellipsoid transforms into the sphere, prolate or oblate spheroids are considered.

Abstract: Preoperative radiotherapy and surgery are standard treatments for high-risk soft tissue sarcomas (STS), yet distant metastasis remains a significant clinical challenge. This study aims to develop a robust and interpretable multi-omics predictive model for metastasis, specifically addressing the limitations of small datasets. A retrospective analysis included 40 STS patients (23 with metastasis) treated with preoperative radiotherapy and surgery. Using PyRadiomics, 107 radiomic and dosiomic features were extracted from CT scans, dose distributions, and post-treatment contrast-enhanced T1-weighted MRI. A Logistic Regression classifier with L1 regularization was identified as optimal and rigorously evaluated via Stratified 5-Fold Cross-Validation repeated 100 times. Single-modality models demonstrated limited predictive performance, yielding mean AUC-ROC values of 0.52 for CT, 0.59 for dose distribution, and 0.62 for normalized MRI. Integrating these features into a combined multi-omics signature substantially improved the mean AUC-ROC to 0.75. Furthermore, model explainability was ensured using Log-Odds to identify key predictive features. Combining anatomical, dosiomic, and MRI-derived features significantly enhances the prediction of metastatic relapse in STS patients. This interpretable approach shows strong potential for guiding personalized clinical treatments.

Abstract: We propose a temporal quantum ratchet interpretation of the microscopic transport mechanism underlying microwave-induced resistance oscillations (MIRO) in high-mobility two-dimensional electron systems. The starting point is the coherent-state formulation of microwave-driven Landau orbits, where the impurity-scattering matrix element becomes explicitly time-dependent. This dynamics gives rise to a scattering rate synchronized with the velocity of the driven coherent state. Although the space-averaged driven velocity over a microwave period strictly vanishes, the quantum correlation between the instantaneous velocity and the phase-dependent scattering probability generates a net sta- tionary transport response. In this framework, the flight time, τ, between successive scattering events acts as a phase-sensitive temporal memory, while the magnetic field tunes the accumulated phase via the microwave to cyclotron frequency ratio (w/w_c). We show that the characteristic MIRO term ωτ sin(ωτ) emerges naturally as the mathematical signature of this temporal rectification. This approach establishes a direct conceptual bridge between synchronized quantum transport and temporal ratchet physics without requiring engineered spatial asymmetries.

Abstract: The state of a perovskite precursor ink is set by how its solvents coordinate the precursors, yet the roles of individual solvents in green binary mixtures remain poorly understood. Here we examine how 2-methoxyethanol (2Me) and 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone (DMI) share the solvation of the four precursor components of a formamidinium–methylammonium (FA–MA) lead iodide–bromide ink: PbI₂, PbBr₂, FAI and MABr. Cluster–continuum DFT calculations (r²SCAN-3c/SMD) of the exchange of 2Me for DMI in the first solvation shell show that PbI₂ prefers DMI, whereas PbBr₂, FAI and MABr prefer 2Me (+4.7, +4.2 and +8.4 kJ mol⁻¹ per DMI); in FAI and MABr, 2Me donates O–H···X⁻ hydrogen bonds to the halide anion. A thermodynamic model built on these energies points to 2Me-rich mixtures (about 10–20 vol% DMI) as the best compromise. All 2Me/DMI mixtures wet the polymer PTAA, with the contact angle falling from 24.7° (2Me) to 13.3° (DMI). Without an anti-solvent (gas quenching only), the 2Me:DMI ink gives on PTAA a film with larger and more uniform grains than the DMF:DMSO ink, with the same absorption onset (776 nm). Together with literature data on blade-coated films and modules, these results support 2Me/DMI as a solvent system for anti-solvent-free, large-area processing of FA–MA perovskites.

Abstract: The mathematical modeling of singular shear-strip boundary layers in continuous media represents a profound challenge due to the breakdown of smooth differential bounds and the emergence of localized, non-smooth shear displacements. In this paper, we establish a rigorous, closed-form analytical framework to stabilize coupled transport gradients using a nonlocal Friedrichs commutator mapped within an anisotropic Sobolev functional space. By mapping the coupled transport gradients through a gauge-covariant intrinsic tensor Friedrichs mollifier, we demonstrate how high-frequency ultraviolet interactions can be structurally neutralized. We rigorously prove the exact integral formulation of the commutator and demonstrate that its L^p norm vanishes uniformly in the local limit (ε → 0), provided the velocity field maintains W^{1,∞} regularity. To justify the necessity of this regularity condition, we construct an explicit counterexample using a discontinuous shear flow, proving that when velocity gradients contain singular jumps, the commutator does not vanish but instead generates concentrated singular layers (distributions). To control these layers, we introduce a fourth-order biharmonic hydrodynamic dissipative spectral cage (κΔ²) on a bounded domain with Navier-slip boundary conditions. We rigorously establish the energy identity, prove the exponential decay of the energy, and utilize Galerkin approximations and the Aubin-Lions compactness lemma to prove the global existence and uniqueness of weak solutions. This framework provides a mathematically robust foundation for understanding boundary layer singularities, analytically isolating the anomalous dissipation profile without relying on ad-hoc empirical truncations.

Abstract:

Background: The world of science is concerned with generating and storing energy due to the decreasing availability of finite petroleum and coal. Researchers have proposed Hydrogen (H) as a viable alternative to natural gas because of its sustainability, yet storing H remains a challenge. Hydrogen is a substitute fuel that raises security issues due to storage and transportation challenges. Scientists are interested in perovskite-based substances because they are promising materials for hydrogen storage. Objective: To thoroughly investigate the structural, mechanical, electrical, photonic, and hydrogen storage characteristics of CsPbCl_3-xH_x, a hydride-based substance for hydrogen (H) utilization at different levels of x = 0, 0.3, 0.9, 1.5, 2.1, 2.7, 3 is the goal of the study. Results: The density functional theory (DFT) simulations for cubic CsPbCl_3-xH_x are being carried out in the current study using the GGA-PBE approach, which has been included in the CASTEP software. These substances are persistent and can be synthesized through experimentation according to the synthesis thermodynamics of the substance under study at all levels. The electrical conditions in pure substances are greatly impacted by the presence of a form of hydrogen, as seen by the band arrangement & concentration of levels graphs. There was an increase in the overall number of levels following the introduction of hydrogen, and the gap between the bands has shrunk from 2.38 eV to 0 eV. The electrical band gap change impacts the substance's transparency; hence, light sensitivity measurements, including the index of refraction, insulating operation, as well as absorbency, have been made. Conclusion: The gravimetric method storage capability (C_wt%) has been determined for each of the hydrogen inclusion levels to be used in hydrogen applications such as storage. The range of measurements between 0.10% and 1.40% suggests that the compound provided is effective not exclusively for light and electrical purposes but also for overall operations involving storing hydrogen.

Abstract: This paper explores the historical and theoretical evolution of space, time, mass, and energy by tracing the conceptual bridge from Newtonian mechanics to Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity. While classical mechanics relied on the concept of absolute time, late 19th century electrodynamics, driven by contributions from Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré, J.J. Thomson, and Friedrich Hasenöhrl, laid crucial mathematical and physical groundwork regarding time dilation and electromagnetic inertia. However, these earlier formulations were often treated as isolated phenomena restricted to specific media or electromagnetic fields. By establishing the invariance of the speed of light in a vacuum, while acknowledging its refractive variability in material media, and by reinterpreting relativistic mass-energy relations, Einstein unified these fragmented insights into a comprehensive framework. This paper re-examines these historical milestones, clarifying the precise domains of validity for relativistic energy equations, including massless particles and the energy-momentum invariant.

Abstract: This paper examines the conceptual boundary and governing principles connecting classical Newtonian mechanics, Einsteinian mass-energy equivalence, and Planckian quantum electrodynamics. In low-velocity macroscopic dynamics, mechanical energy transformations proceed under strict mass invariance, rendering relativistic corrections unnecessary. However, in complete radioactive decay or particle-antiparticle annihilation of a resting mass, intrinsic rest-frame energy converts directly into quantum electromagnetic energy. By linking rest-frame energy directly with Planck’s quantum formulation relating photon energy to radiation frequency and wavelength, the study demonstrates that the cumulative radiant energy strictly conserves the system's initial rest energy, establishing the fundamental equivalence between initial rest energy and total emitted photonic field energy. This paper details the structural transition from classical Newtonian mechanics to quantum field energy conservation without relying on intermediate relativistic momentum formulations.

Abstract: Quantum computing relies on the controlled preparation, coherent transformation, coupling, and measurement of quantum states implemented in physical hardware. This article develops a proposed Photony interpretation of electronic qubits based on electron structure, c-spin, x-spin, electron transduction, elemental charge photons, and organized electromagnetic chain states. The analysis focuses on two complementary implementations: semiconductor electron-spin qubits, in which an individual electron participates directly in the encoded quantum degree of freedom, and superconducting qubits, in which the relevant state is collective and must be associated with coordinated many-electron electromagnetic organization. The proposed interpretation does not identify $|0\rangle$ and $|1\rangle$ with two fixed classical electron orientations. Instead, a qubit is hypothesized to correspond to an admissible structural condition involving electron or collective electronic organization, x-spin response, transduction geometry, and the surrounding electromagnetic chain state. Applied control fields may modify this structural condition, while multi-qubit interactions may establish shared or jointly constrained transduced organization. The quantum state remains the established predictive description, and the Photony framework is treated as a structural hypothesis rather than a replacement for quantum mechanics. Its viability requires quantitative recovery of superposition, relative phase, coherent evolution, Rabi oscillations, basis-dependent measurement probabilities, entanglement, decoherence behavior, superconducting-qubit dynamics, and quantum no-signaling, together with at least one experimentally distinguishable prediction.

Abstract: Quantum entanglement produces correlations between spatially separated systems that cannot be reproduced by broad classes of local hidden-variable models and cannot be used for controllable faster-than-light communication. This article develops a proposed Photony interpretation of electron entanglement based on electron structure, c-spin, x-spin, electron transduction, and shared electro-magnetic chain organization. Within Photony Theory, c-spin represents persistent internal rotational handedness, while x-spin provides an externally responsive orientation through which the electron interacts with its local electromagnetic environment. Electron transduction is proposed to organize elemental charge photons into larger chain structures whose directional organization reflects the state of the participating electron. The central hypothesis is that two entangled electrons may remain associated with the same transduced chain after becoming spatially separated. A local measurement may alter the x-spin condition of one electron and thereby reconfigure the rotational state of the shared structure, which in turn constrains the state available to the second electron. This proposed response is treated as a transition of a jointly organized entangled structure rather than as a conventional signal propagating from one particle to the other. The model must preserve local measurement randomness and the quantum no-signaling condition. It must also ultimately reproduce the spin-singlet angular correlation, Bell-inequality violations, and established decoherence behavior. The present work there-fore offers a specific structural hypothesis whose viability depends on future quantitative derivation and experimentally distinguishable predictions.

Abstract: Controlling heat flow in β-Ga₂O₃ thin films requires understanding both phonon transport within the semiconductor and heat transfer across metal/semiconductor interfaces. Here, we investigate these pathways in high-temperature RF magnetron-sputtered β-Ga₂O₃ films grown on c-plane sapphire with thicknesses from 0.42 to 2.1 μm. The thermal conductivity increases from 5.4–6.9 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ in the 420 nm film to approximately 10–12 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ in the thicker films. Structural characterization reveals thickness-dependent microstructural evolution, including grain coarsening and intergranular void-like defects. A semi-analytical Debye–Klemens model incorporating phonon scattering from film boundary and defects reproduces the overall thickness dependence. We further demonstrate that Ar plasma treatment provides an effective means of modifying interfacial heat transfer: the Al/β-Ga₂O₃ thermal boundary conductance increases from approximately 60 to 100 MW m⁻² K⁻¹, or by about 70%, while the thermal conductivity of the underlying β-Ga₂O₃ remains comparatively unchanged. Picosecond laser ultrasonic measurements and cross-sectional TEM reveal a corresponding modification of the interfacial acoustic response and formation of an ultrathin amorphous/disordered near-surface region. These results demonstrate that thermal transport in sputtered β-Ga₂O₃ can be independently tuned through film-thickness-dependent microstructure and near-surface interface modification, providing practical routes for thermal management in β-Ga₂O₃-based devices.

Abstract: Solar flares rapidly convert stored magnetic free energy into electromagnetic radiation, accelerated particles, plasma heating, and bulk plasma motion. Magnetic reconnection provides the established macroscopic framework for changes in magnetic connectivity and associated energy conversion, but an important question concerns the local physical transition that initiates the earliest rapid release as a stressed magnetic system enters reconnection. This study develops Magnetic Breakdown as a proposed threshold-driven mechanism for that transition. Within Photony Theory, internal free electrons associated with current transduce dynamic elemental charge photons into closed magnetic chains. Magnetic chains organize into fibrils and larger current-supported structures such as flux tubes, coronal loops, and flux ropes. Increasing chain density, curvature, compression, twist, interaction, current concentration, or confinement can be accommodated through deformation, redistribution, or magnetic reassignment. Magnetic Breakdown is proposed to occur when such accommodation and continuous reassignment can no longer preserve local magnetic-chain continuity. Conventional electromagnetic and magnetohydrodynamic relations remain the quantitative basis for magnetic energy, current-sheet geometry, and plasma flow. The Photony interpretation adds a proposed structural mechanism for threshold crossing, localized fragmentation, energy release, and subsequent reorganization. Conservation-of-energy relations, Sweet-Parker scaling, modeled flare-energy timelines, and observational constraints are used to develop testable distinctions between Magnetic Breakdown, magnetic reassignment, and macroscopic reconnection.

Abstract: This paper presents PySkyLumos, an open-source Python framework for simulating skylight polarization measurements and metadata. It implements the Rayleigh, Berry, and Pan models, capturing both classical scattering and elevation-expressed singularity dynamics. Efficiency benchmarks show a fivefold overall speedup and up to two orders of magnitude faster Stokes-parameter image formation compared to existing tools. Validation against real polarization camera data confirms its accuracy and suitability for bio-inspired computer vision, navigation, robotics, and sensing applications.