Abstract:

Effective forest trail planning requires objective and transparent tools to balance user accessibility, recreation quality, and environmental protection. This research explores how geospatial analysis and multi-criteria decision-making can be integrated to optimize the allocation of rest and recreation facilities within forest trail networks, where limited resources and ecological constraints often restrict development. The Mount Paiko trail system in northern Greece was analyzed using a hybrid GIS–AHP–PROMETHEE II framework. Five evaluation criteria—trail difficulty, trail class, scenic attractiveness, distance from the trailhead, and traversal time from the nearest facility—were assessed to represent both physical effort and spatial accessibility. Stakeholder-based AHP weighting identified traversal time (C5) and trail difficulty (C1) as the most influential criteria, emphasizing the importance of user fatigue and service gaps. PROMETHEE II produced a clear hierarchy of forty candidate sites, prioritizing medium-difficulty and visually appealing routes located over 10 km from the starting point. Net flow values ranged from −0.228 to +0.309, with the highest-ranked location (PTF 12) highlighting a medium-difficulty, scenic segment with one of the longest traversal times from the nearest facility. By merging quantitative network analysis with structured expert judgment, the proposed framework offers a reproducible and evidence-based decision-support tool for forest planners and policymakers, promoting sustainable trail development that maximizes accessibility while minimizing environmental disturbance.

Abstract: Climate change is impacting rivers worldwide, with a reduction in normal flow conditions in temperate regions like Poland. Such changes have an influence on riparian vegetation, as depicted by this study, which focuses on a 250km-long reach of the Polish Vistula River and investigates variations of monthly maximum discharges and vegetation conditions over the period 1984-2023 by means of Landsat satellite images. These satellite data were handled via Google Earth Engine, looking at a common index such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, considered as a proxy of vegetation coverage variations. Results suggest that a process of riparian vegetation growth and consequent oversimplification is affecting this river reach, particularly over the last couple of decades, during which water availability has decreased significantly. Using the Vistula River as an exemplary case study, this research suggests that prolonged dry periods, more common in recent decades due to climate change, might impact large rivers located in temperate climates, favouring the development of vegetation on exposed sandbars, eventually resulting in a less dynamic active channel.

Abstract: The links between forest fires in Serbia and teleconnections were investigated. The North Atlantic Oscillation (two versions), the Arctic Oscillation, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, the Mediterranean Oscillation (two versions), and several other indices were used in the calculations. The data on the burned area (ha) and the damage to wood mass (m3) for the period 1970-2022 were also used. The highest values of the correlation coefficient were obtained for the damage to wood mass. As for NAO1 (on the basis of the difference in sea surface air pressure between Island - low air pressure and the Azores - high), the highest value was obtained for NAO1 April (0.316, p ≤ .05). In the calculation with NAO2 (the normalized pressure difference between Gibraltar and Reykjavik), it was for NAO2 February (0.337, p ≤ .05). The highest values with AO were for AO March (0.353, p ≤ .05) and AO spring (0.378, p ≤ .01). In the case of MO, better results were obtained with MOI2 (Gibraltar's Northern Frontier and Lod Airport in Israel): MOI2 February (0.365, p ≤ .01). For the application of the obtained results in forest fire forecasting, more detailed research is necessary.

Abstract: Accurate spatial estimation of rainfall is critical for hydrological modeling, water resource management, and agricultural planning—particularly in mountainous and semi-arid regions with sparse monitoring networks. This study presents an Enhanced Elevation-Weighted Local Regression (EWLR) model to generate a high-resolution (30 m) annual rainfall surface for Erbil Governorate, northern Iraq. The EWLR model integrates distance weighting, elevation similarity weighting, and orographic enhancement within a locally weighted regression framework. Average annual rainfall, derived from rainy seasons spanning 1997–1998 to 2024–2025 across 19 meteorological stations, along with a 30 m resolution digital elevation model (DEM), were used to construct and validate the model. Hyperparameters were optimized via Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation (LOOCV), and performance was benchmarked against conventional methods including Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Kriging, Thin-Plate Spline, and Radial Basis Function interpolation. Results indicate that EWLR outperforms all benchmarks, achieving R² = 0.797, RMSE = 120.9 mm, and MAE = 87.5 mm. Rainfall shows a strong positive correlation with elevation (r = 0.907, p < 0.001), increasing nearly fivefold from lowland plains (~270 mm) to mountainous areas (>1,350 mm). The final high-resolution rainfall map captures orographic effects accurately, providing a physically consistent, statistically robust dataset suitable for hydrological, climatic, and environmental modeling in data-sparse mountainous regions. The methodology offers a reproducible, elevation-centric framework adaptable to other elevation-driven variables (e.g., temperature lapse rates or snow accumulation) and complex terrains with limited observations.

Abstract: Through this research, we seek to explore the sustainability of the urban form and its impact on the harmony of the urban landscape and its influence on the urban identity of Tebessa, Algeria, a historic border city. This study examines the relationship between architecture, urban planning, and cultural preservation in a historically significant city experiencing modernization. It focuses on a multi-civilizational town with notable historical landmarks like Byzantine and Christian churches. The research investigates how contemporary urban development can either enhance or diminish city identity, addressing the central question of maintaining urban identity during continuous transformation. Key areas of analysis include architectural choices' impact on city aesthetics, and the role of public and green spaces in creating harmonious urban landscapes while preserving cultural and architectural heritage. The findings show that poor coordination between urban policies and identity elements can weaken urban landscape cohesion, undermining residents' sense of belonging. To address this, the study recommends enhancing urban management by integrating sustainable practices that honor local identity while fulfilling modern development needs. These recommendations include implementing strict urban planning regulations, promoting the preservation of historical monuments, and encouraging citizen participation in urban planning processes through a comprehensive approach that enhances the visual harmony of the city while preserving its unique urban identity.

Abstract:

This paper presents an automated GIS-based procedure for the analysis and optimization of hiking trails. A preliminary analysis of the topological and environmental features of a trail network is performed by evaluating a set of connection metrics describing both the local and global connectivity of its graph. Subsequently, the evaluation of optimal hiking trails has been implemented in an automatic procedure, which can use walking time, distance or upward slope as costs to be minimized. The evaluation of the hiking times for trail sections has been implemented in a GIS as a function of terrain slope. A Python script has been used to automate this process in GRASS GIS. The process was tested on the network of mountain trails in Trentino, an alpine region of Italy, where a digital map of the routes is accessible online. Empirical times and estimated trip times agree fairly well. The optimal paths vary based on the cost choice, i.e., whether the distance, trip time, or total height difference is minimized. It is therefore possible to integrate the determination of optimal hiking paths in a GIS, allowing the integration of this tool with all the other spatial analysis available in this environment.

Abstract: The industrial city of Brno is the second largest city in the Czech Republic (402,739 permanent residents as of 31 December 2024) and the core of the country’s third largest metropolitan area, following Prague and the industrial region of Ostrava. Brno has had a metropolitan character since the High Middle Ages, and experienced extraordinary development during the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 19th century. From a medieval core of just over 1 km², the city expanded in multiple stages to its current area of nearly 230 km². During this expansion, Brno absorbed smaller towns as well as numerous rural municipalities. As a result, large tracts of forest and agricultural land became part of the city. Land adjacent to the historic core was often converted, while the central parts of the incorporated villages retained a relatively rural appearance. Former agricultural plots in these areas were gradually transformed into residential quarters, consisting of villas or apartment buildings. Under state socialism, large housing estates of prefabricated blocks were constructed on the city’s inner periphery. At the same time, farmland was nationalised and consolidated into large-scale cooperative fields. This pattern persisted even after the political changes of 1989. Nevertheless, within the administrative boundaries of Brno, remnants of very old rural landscapes survived, often preserving the parcel structure of medieval small-scale agriculture. These areas are today largely maintained by gardening associations and individual gardeners. Between 2016 and 2020, these remnants were inventoried and classified. A total of 34 sites of varying size were identified. Based on their state of preservation, they were divided into two groups: (1) relatively well-preserved and (2) heavily degraded, through comparison with the situation around 1830, when detailed cadastral mapping was conducted. Well-preserved segments of the pre-industrial landscape were analysed and evaluated in GIS. Their survival has been influenced by natural factors (geological substrate, slope, exposure, elevation, topoclimatic conditions, soil quality), location (distance from the city centre, proximity to forests), land ownership (private, municipal, state), as well as the personal and recreational interests of residents. Interestingly, more remnants of the old landscape have been preserved inside Brno than in its rural surroundings, largely due to the role of urban gardening. Finally, the study assesses the prospects for the continued existence of these landscape relics. From the perspective of city administration and developers, they represent land reserves for other uses. Brno also hosts numerous modern allotment colonies, established either on former agricultural land or on abandoned and degraded sites (e.g. quarries, devastated or reclaimed areas) to meet the recreational needs of the urban population.

Abstract: In recent decades, the suspended sediment load (SSL) of many rivers around the world has shown a significant decreasing trend, which is particularly prominent in large river basins such as the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. One of the key challenges currently faced is how to quantitatively determine the relative influence of the dominant factors on the basis of systematically assessing the changing trend of SSL. This study takes the upper reaches of the Yangtze River as the research object. Based on the observation data from representative hydrological stations during 1966–2024, it systematically analyzes the interannual variation trend of SSL in different sections of the study river reach, identifies several mutation points, and divides the SSL change process into a baseline period, change period I, and change period II. Using the SCRCQ (slope change ratio of cumulative quantity) method, the study finds that the contribution ratio of human activities to the reduction of SSL in different sections of the study river reach ranges from 87.5% to 111.9%, the contribution ratio of precipitation change ranges from −14.3% to 12.4%, and the contribution ratio of evapotranspiration change ranges from −0.1% to 0.6%. For the entire upper Yangtze River basin, the contribution ratios of human activities to the reduction of SSL during change period I and change period II are 87.5% and 95.1%, respectively, while those of climate change are 12.4% and 4.9%, respectively. Human activities play an absolutely dominant role in the reduction of SSL in the upper Yangtze River. The results of this study can provide guidance for the scientific management of river reaches with concentrated large-scale reservoirs in the upper Yangtze River, and also offer references for the formulation of management measures for similar rivers worldwide.

Abstract: Background: Amid rapid urbanization, rural regions are undergoing profound spatial restructuring and landscape degradation. This study establishes a remote sensing–empowered integrated framework of Diagnosis–Elements–Structure–Function (DESF) to systematically investigate the mechanisms and pathways of rural spatial reconstruction and landscape reshaping. The DESF framework provides a comprehensive approach to understanding how ecological, cultural, and structural dimensions interact in reshaping rural territories. Methods: By integrating multi-source remote sensing imagery, GIS spatial analysis, and extensive field surveys, the study develops a multi-indicator rurality diagnostic model, a dual-dimensional “ecological–cultural” landscape classification system, and a spatial structure optimization module. Together, these form a four-tiered technical route encompassing data acquisition, diagnosis, reconstruction, and application. The methodological design bridges quantitative analysis and human-centered interpretation, enabling an in-depth understanding of rural transformation dynamics. Results: Empirical analysis in Quzhou County from 1985 to 2015 reveals a 40% decline in the Rurality Index, displaying a distinct “strong-south, weak-north” spatial differentiation pattern under accelerated urbanization. Landscape classification identified 108 distinct landscape elements, grouped into three major landscape assemblages—natural-ecological, agricultural-productive, and rural-living. Spatial structural analysis uncovered six dominant settlement morphologies, including fan-shaped expansion and clustered growth, reflecting a coupled nature–society dual-driven mechanism. Based on these insights, a “core preservation–peripheral integration” spatial strategy is proposed, establishing a hierarchical “central–ordinary–specialized village” system and a functional zoning model characterized by “one core, multiple nodes.”Conclusions: The study advances theoretical understanding by refining the conceptual system of “diagnosis–reconstruction” in rural spatial studies, innovates methodologically by integrating remote sensing–based quantitative diagnostics with qualitative cultural perception, and contributes practically by offering an operational spatial governance toolkit for rural revitalization. The DESF framework demonstrates strong applicability, scalability, and international reference value for sustainable rural development and policy-making under global urbanization dynamics.

Abstract: The agrarian sector, as the key source of livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), has become highly vulnerable to changes in extension service deliveries. Limited access to technical advice, financial loans and farming input mixed with environmental challenges require an understanding of how multi-functional actor relationships determine agricultural knowledge and exchange of information. This study contributes to filling this gap by characterizing horizontal and vertical interactions. By applying a social network analysis, we mapped actor relations along public-private-community co-operations to provide insights into structural dependencies at different administrative levels. Related to three sites distributed over Burkina Faso and Ghana, local perceptions were collected in stakeholder workshops to generate social network narratives. These narratives were analyzed by various metrics to identify patterns of partnerships and key actors. Study results reveal for Burkina Faso a slight shared network topology, while both sites in Ghana reflect a top-down flow of knowledge and information. The statistical findings indicate that agricultural extension services are primarily delivered to farmers through a few key actors such as NGOs and farm-based organizations/ cooperatives. Especially at the community level, the results show many reciprocal links between farmers, business actors and NGOs. This highlights a shift toward a pluralistic agricultural extension service system and underpins the demand for policies to support the long-term viability of these actors, in particular for regions where public extension agents are under-represented.

Abstract: The analysis of changing trends of river runoff and sediment discharge and the exploration of their causes are of great significance for formulating sustainable development measures for river basin systems. Based on methods such as trend test, mutation detection, and regression analysis, this study conducts a systematic comparative research on the water-sediment processes in the river reach where large-scale cascaded reservoirs connected end to end are located in the upper Yangtze River, and obtains the following key research progress: For the study reach (between Sanduizi and Xiangjiaba Stations) during the period of 1966–2023, the change rates of annual incoming and outgoing runoff were 2.88×10⁸ m³‧yr⁻¹ and −0.186×10⁸ m³‧yr⁻¹ respectively, accounting for 0.017% and 0.013% of the annual average runoff. The changing trends were not significant. During the same period, the change rates of suspended sediment load (SSL) at the inlet and outlet of this river reach were −8.0×10⁵ t‧yr⁻¹ and −46×10⁵ t‧yr⁻¹ respectively, accounting for 1.25% and 2.45% of their respective annual average sediment discharge. The SSL showed a significant decreasing trend, which was particularly characterized by a sharp reduction at the outlet. The massive sediment retention and multi-mode operation of cascaded reservoirs are the fundamental reasons for the variation of the water-sediment relationship and the sharp decrease in annual SSL in this reach, and they also lead to an obvious adjustment of water and sediment in the river basin that "cuts peaks and fills valleys" within a year. Climate change and other human activities have reduced the sediment input in the study reach. Looking forward to the next few decades, climate factors will remain the dominant factor affecting the inter-annual variation of runoff in the study area. In contrast, human activities such as reservoir operation will continue to fully control the sediment output of the river reach and also restrict the annual distribution of water and sediment. The results of this study can provide a reference for predicting the changing trends of water and sediment in similar river reaches with cascaded reservoir groups and formulating effective river management measures.

Abstract: This study analyzes the locational characteristics of temples and shrines within the Namerigawa river basin in Kamakura, focusing on the characteristic landform known as "Yatsu valley". While previous studies on Kamakura have examined historical and tourism-related aspects, few have investigated the spatial relationship between religious sites and geography. Using GIS-based national land numerical data and field surveys, this research classified 56 temples and shrines by environmental type, historical period, and religious sect. Results indicate that a significant number were built in Yatsu valley, especially during the Kamakura period. Many Yatsu valley names reflect historical temple associations, even if the original structures no longer exist. Furthermore, temporal patterns show shifts in dominant sects, such as the Jodo-Shu and Nichiren-Shu after 1260. Spatial analysis reveals a concentration of temples near specific watershed and water networks, particularly where water access is optimal. This study contributes a geo-graphical perspective to the field of historical and religious site research in Kamakura and underscores the need for comparative studies in other watersheds to deepen under-standing of temple and shrine distribution across the region.

Abstract: Land economic density (LED) is vital for optimizing industrial structure and promoting intensive resource utilization. However, most existing studies have focused on city or county scales, with limited attention to the township level patterns. To address this research gap, we take 86 townships in Anyang City as research units and develop a four-dimensional evaluation system for LED. Using spatial autocorrelation, standard deviation ellipse, and geographically weighted regression (GWR) methods, we analyze the spatiotemporal evolution and driving mechanisms of LED from 2005 to 2023. Results indicate that: (1) high LED areas form a ring around the central city with dual cores in western Linzhou county and southeastern Huaxian county, while low LED areas are concentrated at the northwestern and northeastern margins; (2) global spatial autocorrelation is weak, with low–low clusters shrinking from contiguous patches to only three townships by 2023, while high–high clusters expand from isolated points to multi-centered diffusion; (3) the ellipse consistently shows a northwest–southeast orientation, with the rotation angle increasing from 128.24° to 130.35°, the flatness ratio rising from 0.432 to 0.445, and the centroid shifting northwest then southeast; (4) GWR results highlight economic foundation, industrial upgrading, and government support as the dominant drivers. Based on these findings, we propose a “One Core–Four Poles, Three Axes–Five Zones” spatial optimization framework to promote coordinated urban–rural development. This study provides a practical and multidimensional evaluation approach at the township level, offering methodological support for regional territorial spatial planning and sustainable development.

Abstract: To overcome the limited accuracy of existing street-vitality assessments under dense occlusion and their lack of dynamic, multi-source data fusion, this study proposes an integrated dynamic model that couples an enhanced YOLOv11 with heterogeneous spatio-temporal datasets. The network introduces a Two-backbone architecture for stronger multi-scale fusion, Spatial Pyramid Depth Convolution (SPDConv) for richer urban-scene features, and Dynamic Sparse Sampling (DySample) for robust occlusion handling. Validated in Yibin, the model achieves 90.4 % precision, 67.3 % recall and 77.2 % mAP@50—gains of 6.5 %, 5.3 % and 5.1 % over baseline. By fusing Baidu heat maps, street-view imagery, road networks and POI data, a spatial-coupling framework quantifies the interplay between commercial facilities and street vitality, enabling real-time diagnosis of urban dynamics, targeted retail regulation and adaptive traffic management. The work shifts urban resource allocation from static planning to dynamic, responsive systems.

Abstract: Based on 0.1° × 0.1° soil moisture reanalysis data from 1950 to 2024, combined with remote sensing ecological products such as EVI and GPP, this study systematically investigates the spatiotemporal evolution, transition process, and ecological responses of flash droughts and slowly-evolving droughts (including seasonal and cross-seasonal droughts) in the Dongjiang River Basin of China. The results indicate that: (1) The average occurrence frequencies of flash droughts, seasonal droughts, and cross-seasonal droughts within the basin were 4.1%, 7.8%, and 8.4%, respectively. (2) The vast majority of flash droughts (approximately 90.1%) further developed into longer-lasting slowly-evolving droughts, indicating that flash droughts serve as a critical precursor to persistent drought events. Moreover, winter was identified as the key season for the occurrence of flash droughts and their transition to slowly-evolving droughts. (3) In terms of ecological response, droughts significantly suppressed vegetation growth but ecosystem resilience exhibited notable differences: although flash droughts caused relatively mild initial suppression, they were accompanied by a severe lack of ecosystem resilience; in contrast, cross-seasonal droughts, despite inducing stronger suppression, were met with higher ecosystem resilience. This study underscores the importance of early monitoring and warning of flash droughts, and the findings provide a scientific basis for drought risk management in humid basins.

Abstract: The Jinsha River Basin, spanning Sichuan, Tibet, and Yunnan provinces, is a typical mountain–valley composite region characterized by complex and heterogeneous topography. To quantitatively assess the effects of topographic factors on land-use patterns, this study selected the Zhaotong section as the research area and employed Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to integrate administrative boundary data with high-resolution digital elevation models (DEM). Land-use categories were reclassified and analyzed in relation to elevation, slope, and aspect through GIS-based spatial statistics and gradient analysis. The results reveal that: (1) Elevation strongly stratifies land use. Below 2000 m, cropland dominates (42.7%), while above 2500 m natural land types prevail, including grassland (36.4%), shrubland (21.8%), and forestland (31.2%), with cropland and built-up land both falling below 10%. (2) Slope exerts the most critical influence. On gentle slopes (< 5°), cropland accounts for 48.5%, whereas at slopes >25°, grassland expands sharply to 54.2%, accompanied by significant increases in shrubland and forestland. (3) Aspect analysis indicates that cropland is more common on sunny slopes (19.6%) than shady slopes (15.8%), while grassland is more prevalent on shady slopes (37.4%). Built-up land, although below 2% overall, is concentrated in low-elevation, gentle-valley zones. Beyond topographic controls, the study employed GIS-supported models of coordination, coupling, and responsiveness to analyze human–land relationships and land-use evolution from 2016 to 2023. The findings suggest that guiding cropland consolidation toward low-slope areas, restricting slope cultivation, and strengthening the protection of high-altitude ecological land are essential strategies for optimizing ecological security and promoting sustainable land use in the Zhaotong section of the Jinsha River Basin.

Abstract: The mountain forests of the Eastern Caucasus bear the mark of long-term interaction between nature and humans. As shown by the results of forest mapping and forest use surveys, forest cover is fragmented, and forest resource use is regulated by a combination of formal and informal rules. Over a long period of history, a close relationship has developed between the diversity of mountain forest ecosystems and the institutions that regulate the use of forest resources. The established links between the population and the forest, institutions and ecosystems are reflected in the spatial pattern of different forest types, which are subject to dynamics influenced by natural factors (mainly climatic) and changing socio-political conditions. The article presents the results of mapping and analysing changes in forest cover and its use in the Chechen Re-public from a historical perspective and, in more detail, over the last few decades. For-est regeneration dynamics are observed at the upper forest line due to reduced grazing pressure and global warming. Forest densification is also observed across the entire range of altitudinal zones. Managing mountain forests in conditions of great natural and institutional diversity requires a shift in thinking from a narrow sectoral under-standing of forest biocenoses to viewing them as mountain socio-ecological systems. Assessing the sustainability of mountain forestscapes should take into account not only ecological parameters (such as biomass quantity) but also socio-ecological relation-ships expressed in the spatial mosaic of mountain forest ecosystems embedded in the local institutional system. The authors recommend raising awareness and involving the local population in the management of forest ecosystems.

Abstract: Existing qualitative direction-relation matrix models employ rigid classification schemes, limiting their ability to differentiate directional relationships between multiple targets within the same directional tile. This paper presents dual-scale quantitative frameworks for cardinal directions that can discern both incremental variations within specific directional tiles and angular modifications along the same radial vectors. The proposed synthesis of dual quantitative descriptors with the established multi-scale qualitative directional relationship pyramid model creates a holistic framework that connects qualitative and quantitative spatial representations. This integrated multi-scale directional relationship pyramid model enables bidirectional transformation between descriptive paradigms across multiple granularity levels. Experimental assessment confirms that this innovative architecture substantially improves directional relationship precision through its quantitative elements while supporting various application domains requiring multi-resolution spatial reasoning functionalities.

Abstract: Sohodol Gorges has become a location of interest for tourists looking for ecological experiences and outdoor activities. The main purpose of the present study is to evaluate the attitudes of Romanian tourists toward the development of geotourism in this region following the COVID-19 pandemic. In conjunction with the research questions, hypotheses, variables, and research methodology, the following research objectives were emphasized in this study of the Oltenia region: (1) to investigate how certain socio-demographic variables, such as age, gender, level of education, and occupation, influence tourists' perceptions of the various aspects of geotourism development in the Sohodol Gorges; (2) to analyze the different dimensions of geotourism, including its economic, ecological, and socio-cultural impacts, thus contributing to a deeper understanding of how geotourism is perceived in the study area in the post-pandemic context. For data processing and analysis, EViews software version 12.0 was used, enabling complex statistical analyses such as multiple regressions and correlation coefficient determination. These techniques were essential for identifying and interpreting the relationships between demographic variables and tourist perceptions. The results of this research provide a detailed picture of the influence of demographic and behavioral factors on tourists' perceptions in the context of post-COVID-19 geotourism development in the Sohodol Gorges of the Romania. Education level and age play a significant role in shaping economic and environmental perceptions, indicating that tourists with higher education levels are more aware of the economic and ecological impact of tourism.

Abstract: Urban expansion is a pervasive global phenomenon with profound environmental, social, and economic implications, particularly in rapidly developing regions. This paper presents a spatiotemporal analysis of urban expansion in Debark Town, Ethiopia. In this study, machine learning algorithms, such as the random forest algorithm and support vector machine, were investigated for satellite image classification to observe spatiotemporal urban land cover changes. The Google Earth Engine has been utilized to pre-process the Landsat 7, 8, and Sentinel-2 Landsat imagery. Classification accuracy was assessed using an 80:20 training-to-testing split. RF demonstrated higher classification performance with overall accuracies of 95.86% (2000), 95.9% (2015), and 97.29% (2025), outperforming SVM’s 95%, 93.06%, and 93.74% respectively. The research revealed that feature changes occurred during such transition periods. The results revealed agricultural land decreased markedly from 12,384.65 hectares (71.45%) to 7,951.21 hectares (45.88%), and urban land increased built-up areas from 780 hectares (4.50%) in the year 2000 to 2,741.52 hectares (15.82%) in the year 2025, an increase of approximately 1,961.55 hectares, or 11.32%. Furthermore, urban land rose rapidly due to declining vegetative cover, and the built-up areas increased at a rate of 78.46 ha per year. Overall, this research offers useful information regarding the urban land cover change that can assist decision makers, natural resource managers, and policymakers in making the right decisions. This concluded that urban expansion in the research area occurred, and subsequently, urbanization occurred at a high rate within the past years, leading to a decline in agricultural lands.