Abstract: As dockless bike-sharing systems rapidly expanded across China, scholars have increasingly examined bicycle usage efficiency across locations and its relationship to the geographical environment. Existing studies rely primarily on big data to evaluate location-specific efficiency using Time-to-Booking (ToB)—the idle duration before a bicycle is rented at a given location. This indicator, however, ignores network flow effects: bicycles departing from the same location may reach destinations with vastly different ToB values. This gap is addressed by incorporating the destination ToB after each trip, developing a flow-integrated ToB index for central Beijing. Analysis reveals that the improved index exhibits significant spatial heterogeneity while maintaining the overall distribution pattern of the original metric, indicating that most bicycles flow to areas with efficiency similar to that of their origin. The flow-integrated index compresses the efficiency range—maximum values decrease, minimum values increase—suggesting greater spatial balance in usage efficiency. Bicycles in the city center consistently show higher usage efficiency than those in peripheral areas. Multiple factors influence usage efficiency with significant spatial heterogeneity. Understanding of bike-sharing efficiency is advanced, and practical insights are provided for operators and urban planners in developing refined management strategies.

Abstract: Rapid economic growth does not necessarily translate into better perceived urban health. Using the 2024 nationwide Urban Physical Examination (UPE) resident survey in China, this study assesses how city economic level relates to perceived urban health, proxied by city-level overall satisfaction. The survey was conducted in April–June 2024 in the main urban districts of 47 cities, yielding 692,800 responses and 499,500 valid questionnaires. We aggregate satisfaction to the city level, match it with GDP and key city characteristics, and estimate the GDP–satisfaction association using restricted cubic splines (RCS) to test for potential non-linearity. Across unadjusted and covariate-adjusted models (accounting for population scale and density, industrial structure, fiscal capacity, and regional effects), results show a robust positive association between economic level and satisfaction, while nested-model tests provide no evidence that spline terms improve fit over a linear specification within the observed GDP range. Substantial dispersion around the fitted curve indicates that GDP is an enabling capacity rather than a sufficient condition, pointing to cross-city differences in how effectively resources are converted into lived urban quality. We propose using GDP-adjusted satisfaction benchmarking within the UPE cycle to identify underperforming cities and prioritize targeted governance and renewal actions.

Abstract: International agricultural trade plays a crucial role in balancing the global food supply and demand while facilitating the cross-regional allocation of cropland resources. This study examines the virtual cropland flows embedded in international wheat trade. Utilizing the telecoupling framework and wheat trade data from eight time points between 1995 and 2023, we developed a global virtual-cropland-flow network. Social network analysis (SNA) was used to characterize the structural features and identify telecoupling systems, whereas the quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) regression was applied to analyze the driving factors. The findings reveal that (1) the virtual cropland network shows structural vulnerability and evolutionary complexity amid increasing connectivity, with an overall rise in density and significant fluctuations in the average clustering coefficient and path length. (2) The network exhibits a distinct telecoupling structure. The sending system has shifted from U.S.-Canada dominance to a multipolar pattern involving Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, and the United States. The receiving systems mainly comprise Asia, Africa, and Latin America, with China as the core inflow country. The United States and France, supported by major transnational agribusinesses, act as key spillover systems, consistently holding a high betweenness centrality. (3) Economic development and foreign demand significantly promote the establishment and intensification of trade relationships between countries. Geographical distance has a dual effect: it strongly negatively influences trade initiation but can be overcome by high complementarity between countries during trade deepening. (4) Although international wheat trade effectively conserves global cropland resources, it also introduces systemic risks and environmental spillovers in some countries. Developing nations that are highly dependent on wheat imports, such as Egypt, are more vulnerable to network fluctuations. By integrating multidisciplinary perspectives, this study provides a scientific basis for constructing sustainable food trade systems and agricultural resource governance. It offers valuable insights for advancing SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), sustainable land systems, and the optimization of global land governance.

Abstract: Investigating the impact of factor mobility (FM) on the economic efficiency of marine fisheries (EEMF) holds scientific reference value for promoting high-quality development of the marine fisheries economy in China's coastal regions. This study is based on panel data from 11 coastal provinces and municipalities in China covering the period from 2008 to 2023. Utilizing Tobit models and mediation effect models, it empirically analyzes the direct and indirect impacts of FM on the EEMF, as well as regional heterogeneity in these effects. Research findings indicate that: (1) The level of FM and the EEMF in coastal regions both exhibit fluctuating upward trends, though regional variations exist across different provinces. (2) The FM in coastal regions enhances the EEMF. For every additional unit of FM, the EEMF increases by 0.0825 units. (3) Technological innovation levels and industrial structure upgrading serve as key pathways through which FM influences the EEMF, acting as mediating variables. (4) This impact exhibits regional heterogeneity, with the Eastern Marine Economic Circle being most significantly affected. The research findings expand the scope of studies on FM and the EEMF, providing practical advice for promoting the optimal allocation of factors in coastal regions and enhancing the EEMF development.

Abstract: The integration of outdoor camera images with three-dimensional (3D) geographic information on the observed scene has an interest in many applications of video acquisition. To solve this data fusion problem, camera images have to be matched with the 3D geometry provided by the geographic information system (GIS). This paper proposes to use, for a camera of known geographical position, a dense local azimuth-elevation map (LAEM) derived from a gridded digital elevation model (DEM) as data representation to ease the matching operation between GIS data and the image. Such a map assigns to each regularly sampled azimuth and elevation angles pair the geographic point derived from the DEM viewed in this direction. The problem of computing the LAEM from the DEM is closed to the problem of surface rendering, for which solutions exist in computer graphics. However, rendering software cannot be used directly, since their view directions are constrained by the pin-hole camera model and apparent colour rather than position of the viewed point is assigned to the viewing direction. This paper therefore also proposes a specific algorithm for the computation of the LAEM from the DEM. A MATLAB implementation of the algorithm is also provided, which is tailored to process the DEM data set swissALTI3D from the Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo.

Abstract:

Open biomass burning (OBB) plays a vital role in adverse effects on air quality, climate systems, and human public health. Large-scale OBB, including forest fires and crop residue burning, is detected in Southeast Asia (SEA), a region with agrarian countries. The characteristics of OBB have been widely studied in SEA; however, the daytime and nighttime variations in fire and the effects of fire production remain limited. Particulate matter (PM) is released in significant amounts, burying open biomass during the episode. This study uses the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) to detect active fires during daytime and nighttime from OBB in Chiang Mai, Thailand, during March-April 2020, and investigates the mass concentration of size-specific PM down to PM_0.1. The results showed that hot spots occur more often at night than during the day. The VIIRS fire detection data provides better response to small fires and better mapping of extensive fire perimeters. PM_1.0–0.5 showed the highest mass concentration among particle sizes. Moreover, the fire hotpots are the highest correlated with PM_0.5-0.1 during daytime and PM_1.0–0.5 during nighttime. The large OBB in Chiang Mai significantly contributes to ambient PM. This study offers crucial insights into particulate pollution from biomass burning.

Abstract:

(1) Background: Curve data compression plays a critical role in efficient storage, transmission, and multi-scale visualization of spatial vector data, especially for complex geographic boundaries. Achieving high compression efficiency while preserving geometric fidelity remains a challenging task. (2) Methods: This study proposes a vector curve compression framework based on a convolutional autoencoder. Curve data are segmented and resampled to standardize network input, after which coordinate-difference sequences are encoded into low-dimensional latent vectors through convolutional layers and reconstructed via a symmetric decoder. (3) Results: Experiments conducted on global island boundary datasets demonstrate that the proposed method achieves effective compression with stable reconstruction accuracy. The compression rate can be flexibly adjusted by network parameters. Compared with Fourier series-based methods and fully connected autoencoders, the proposed model shows improved reconstruction performance at relatively high compression ratios. A convolution kernel size of 1 × 7 and a segment length of 25 km are found to yield optimal results. (4) Conclusions: The proposed method enables efficient vector curve compression and reliable coastline reconstruction, and is particularly suitable for small- and medium-scale cartographic applications up to a map scale of 1:250K.

Abstract: Population data at small area scales are essential for effective decision-making, influencing public health, disaster response, and resource allocation, amongst others. While national censuses remain the cornerstone of population data, they are often constrained by high costs, infrequent collection cycles, and coverage gaps, which can hinder timely data availability. To address these challenges, geospatial statistical approaches using limited microcensus surveys have been demonstrated as a reliable source, but the field has advanced substantially in recent years, with significant developments in both data sources and modelling methodologies. New approaches now leverage routine health intervention campaign data, satellite-derived settlement maps, and bespoke modelling approaches to produce reliable small area population estimates where enumeration is difficult or outdated. Various countries are applying these techniques to support census operations, health program planning, and humanitarian response. This manuscript reviews recent advances in ‘bottom-up’ population mapping approaches, highlighting innovations in input data, modelling methods, and validation techniques. We examine ongoing challenges, including partial observation of buildings under forest canopy, population displacement, and institutional uptake. Finally, we discuss emerging opportunities to enhance these approaches through better integration with traditional data ecosystems, capacity strengthening, and co-production with national institutions.

Abstract: There has been substantial debate regarding the consequences of overtourism in cities. Scholars have also examined variables that are directly and indirectly related to tour-ism, including demography, urban rehabilitation and requalification, gentrification, speculation in the real estate market, the influence of digital booking platforms, and the expansion of short-term rental (STR) accommodation. This research seeks to de-velop a clearer spatial understanding of this last one. By analysing their distribution, density (maximum occupancy), and clustering and by employing Geographic Information Systems (GIS), this article will propose methodol-ogies to better visualise spatial patterns, providing different perspectives of the city of Lisbon and its most tourism-intensive parishes. The article finds that STR in Lisbon have expanded rapidly, concentrating over-whelmingly in six historic parishes where STR supply and maximum occupancy now exceed resident populations and housing availability. GIS analysis reveals intense clustering in central neighbourhoods—especially Alfama—indicating significant tour-ism pressure and signs of overtourism. These spatial patterns correlate with depopula-tion and rising housing costs. The study concludes that STR are now a decisive factor in urban imbalance and that detailed spatial analysis is essential for regulating tour-ism, defining carrying-capacity thresholds, and developing more sustainable, socially just urban planning policies.

Abstract:

Effective forest trail planning requires objective and transparent tools to balance user accessibility, recreation quality, and environmental protection. This research explores how geospatial analysis and multi-criteria decision-making can be integrated to optimize the allocation of rest and recreation facilities within forest trail networks, where limited resources and ecological constraints often restrict development. The Mount Paiko trail system in northern Greece was analyzed using a hybrid GIS–AHP–PROMETHEE II framework. Five evaluation criteria—trail difficulty, trail class, scenic attractiveness, distance from the trailhead, and traversal time from the nearest facility—were assessed to represent both physical effort and spatial accessibility. Stakeholder-based AHP weighting identified traversal time (C5) and trail difficulty (C1) as the most influential criteria, emphasizing the importance of user fatigue and service gaps. PROMETHEE II produced a clear hierarchy of forty candidate sites, prioritizing medium-difficulty and visually appealing routes located over 10 km from the starting point. Net flow values ranged from −0.228 to +0.309, with the highest-ranked location (PTF 12) highlighting a medium-difficulty, scenic segment with one of the longest traversal times from the nearest facility. By merging quantitative network analysis with structured expert judgment, the proposed framework offers a reproducible and evidence-based decision-support tool for forest planners and policymakers, promoting sustainable trail development that maximizes accessibility while minimizing environmental disturbance.

Abstract: Climate change is impacting rivers worldwide, with a reduction in normal flow conditions in temperate regions like Poland. Such changes have an influence on riparian vegetation, as depicted by this study, which focuses on a 250km-long reach of the Polish Vistula River and investigates variations of monthly maximum discharges and vegetation conditions over the period 1984-2023 by means of Landsat satellite images. These satellite data were handled via Google Earth Engine, looking at a common index such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, considered as a proxy of vegetation coverage variations. Results suggest that a process of riparian vegetation growth and consequent oversimplification is affecting this river reach, particularly over the last couple of decades, during which water availability has decreased significantly. Using the Vistula River as an exemplary case study, this research suggests that prolonged dry periods, more common in recent decades due to climate change, might impact large rivers located in temperate climates, favouring the development of vegetation on exposed sandbars, eventually resulting in a less dynamic active channel.

Abstract: The links between forest fires in Serbia and teleconnections were investigated. The North Atlantic Oscillation (two versions), the Arctic Oscillation, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, the Mediterranean Oscillation (two versions), and several other indices were used in the calculations. The data on the burned area (ha) and the damage to wood mass (m3) for the period 1970-2022 were also used. The highest values of the correlation coefficient were obtained for the damage to wood mass. As for NAO1 (on the basis of the difference in sea surface air pressure between Island - low air pressure and the Azores - high), the highest value was obtained for NAO1 April (0.316, p ≤ .05). In the calculation with NAO2 (the normalized pressure difference between Gibraltar and Reykjavik), it was for NAO2 February (0.337, p ≤ .05). The highest values with AO were for AO March (0.353, p ≤ .05) and AO spring (0.378, p ≤ .01). In the case of MO, better results were obtained with MOI2 (Gibraltar's Northern Frontier and Lod Airport in Israel): MOI2 February (0.365, p ≤ .01). For the application of the obtained results in forest fire forecasting, more detailed research is necessary.

Abstract: Accurate spatial estimation of rainfall is critical for hydrological modeling, water resource management, and agricultural planning—particularly in mountainous and semi-arid regions with sparse monitoring networks. This study presents an Enhanced Elevation-Weighted Local Regression (EWLR) model to generate a high-resolution (30 m) annual rainfall surface for Erbil Governorate, northern Iraq. The EWLR model integrates distance weighting, elevation similarity weighting, and orographic enhancement within a locally weighted regression framework. Average annual rainfall, derived from rainy seasons spanning 1997–1998 to 2024–2025 across 19 meteorological stations, along with a 30 m resolution digital elevation model (DEM), were used to construct and validate the model. Hyperparameters were optimized via Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation (LOOCV), and performance was benchmarked against conventional methods including Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Kriging, Thin-Plate Spline, and Radial Basis Function interpolation. Results indicate that EWLR outperforms all benchmarks, achieving R² = 0.797, RMSE = 120.9 mm, and MAE = 87.5 mm. Rainfall shows a strong positive correlation with elevation (r = 0.907, p < 0.001), increasing nearly fivefold from lowland plains (~270 mm) to mountainous areas (>1,350 mm). The final high-resolution rainfall map captures orographic effects accurately, providing a physically consistent, statistically robust dataset suitable for hydrological, climatic, and environmental modeling in data-sparse mountainous regions. The methodology offers a reproducible, elevation-centric framework adaptable to other elevation-driven variables (e.g., temperature lapse rates or snow accumulation) and complex terrains with limited observations.

Abstract:

This paper presents an automated GIS-based procedure for the analysis and optimization of hiking trails. A preliminary analysis of the topological and environmental features of a trail network is performed by evaluating a set of connection metrics describing both the local and global connectivity of its graph. Subsequently, the evaluation of optimal hiking trails has been implemented in an automatic procedure, which can use walking time, distance or upward slope as costs to be minimized. The evaluation of the hiking times for trail sections has been implemented in a GIS as a function of terrain slope. A Python script has been used to automate this process in GRASS GIS. The process was tested on the network of mountain trails in Trentino, an alpine region of Italy, where a digital map of the routes is accessible online. Empirical times and estimated trip times agree fairly well. The optimal paths vary based on the cost choice, i.e., whether the distance, trip time, or total height difference is minimized. It is therefore possible to integrate the determination of optimal hiking paths in a GIS, allowing the integration of this tool with all the other spatial analysis available in this environment.

Abstract: The industrial city of Brno is the second largest city in the Czech Republic (402,739 permanent residents as of 31 December 2024) and the core of the country’s third largest metropolitan area, following Prague and the industrial region of Ostrava. Brno has had a metropolitan character since the High Middle Ages, and experienced extraordinary development during the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 19th century. From a medieval core of just over 1 km², the city expanded in multiple stages to its current area of nearly 230 km². During this expansion, Brno absorbed smaller towns as well as numerous rural municipalities. As a result, large tracts of forest and agricultural land became part of the city. Land adjacent to the historic core was often converted, while the central parts of the incorporated villages retained a relatively rural appearance. Former agricultural plots in these areas were gradually transformed into residential quarters, consisting of villas or apartment buildings. Under state socialism, large housing estates of prefabricated blocks were constructed on the city’s inner periphery. At the same time, farmland was nationalised and consolidated into large-scale cooperative fields. This pattern persisted even after the political changes of 1989. Nevertheless, within the administrative boundaries of Brno, remnants of very old rural landscapes survived, often preserving the parcel structure of medieval small-scale agriculture. These areas are today largely maintained by gardening associations and individual gardeners. Between 2016 and 2020, these remnants were inventoried and classified. A total of 34 sites of varying size were identified. Based on their state of preservation, they were divided into two groups: (1) relatively well-preserved and (2) heavily degraded, through comparison with the situation around 1830, when detailed cadastral mapping was conducted. Well-preserved segments of the pre-industrial landscape were analysed and evaluated in GIS. Their survival has been influenced by natural factors (geological substrate, slope, exposure, elevation, topoclimatic conditions, soil quality), location (distance from the city centre, proximity to forests), land ownership (private, municipal, state), as well as the personal and recreational interests of residents. Interestingly, more remnants of the old landscape have been preserved inside Brno than in its rural surroundings, largely due to the role of urban gardening. Finally, the study assesses the prospects for the continued existence of these landscape relics. From the perspective of city administration and developers, they represent land reserves for other uses. Brno also hosts numerous modern allotment colonies, established either on former agricultural land or on abandoned and degraded sites (e.g. quarries, devastated or reclaimed areas) to meet the recreational needs of the urban population.

Abstract: In recent decades, the suspended sediment load (SSL) of many rivers around the world has shown a significant decreasing trend, which is particularly prominent in large river basins such as the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. One of the key challenges currently faced is how to quantitatively determine the relative influence of the dominant factors on the basis of systematically assessing the changing trend of SSL. This study takes the upper reaches of the Yangtze River as the research object. Based on the observation data from representative hydrological stations during 1966–2024, it systematically analyzes the interannual variation trend of SSL in different sections of the study river reach, identifies several mutation points, and divides the SSL change process into a baseline period, change period I, and change period II. Using the SCRCQ (slope change ratio of cumulative quantity) method, the study finds that the contribution ratio of human activities to the reduction of SSL in different sections of the study river reach ranges from 87.5% to 111.9%, the contribution ratio of precipitation change ranges from −14.3% to 12.4%, and the contribution ratio of evapotranspiration change ranges from −0.1% to 0.6%. For the entire upper Yangtze River basin, the contribution ratios of human activities to the reduction of SSL during change period I and change period II are 87.5% and 95.1%, respectively, while those of climate change are 12.4% and 4.9%, respectively. Human activities play an absolutely dominant role in the reduction of SSL in the upper Yangtze River. The results of this study can provide guidance for the scientific management of river reaches with concentrated large-scale reservoirs in the upper Yangtze River, and also offer references for the formulation of management measures for similar rivers worldwide.

Abstract: Background: Amid rapid urbanization, rural regions are undergoing profound spatial restructuring and landscape degradation. This study establishes a remote sensing–empowered integrated framework of Diagnosis–Elements–Structure–Function (DESF) to systematically investigate the mechanisms and pathways of rural spatial reconstruction and landscape reshaping. The DESF framework provides a comprehensive approach to understanding how ecological, cultural, and structural dimensions interact in reshaping rural territories. Methods: By integrating multi-source remote sensing imagery, GIS spatial analysis, and extensive field surveys, the study develops a multi-indicator rurality diagnostic model, a dual-dimensional “ecological–cultural” landscape classification system, and a spatial structure optimization module. Together, these form a four-tiered technical route encompassing data acquisition, diagnosis, reconstruction, and application. The methodological design bridges quantitative analysis and human-centered interpretation, enabling an in-depth understanding of rural transformation dynamics. Results: Empirical analysis in Quzhou County from 1985 to 2015 reveals a 40% decline in the Rurality Index, displaying a distinct “strong-south, weak-north” spatial differentiation pattern under accelerated urbanization. Landscape classification identified 108 distinct landscape elements, grouped into three major landscape assemblages—natural-ecological, agricultural-productive, and rural-living. Spatial structural analysis uncovered six dominant settlement morphologies, including fan-shaped expansion and clustered growth, reflecting a coupled nature–society dual-driven mechanism. Based on these insights, a “core preservation–peripheral integration” spatial strategy is proposed, establishing a hierarchical “central–ordinary–specialized village” system and a functional zoning model characterized by “one core, multiple nodes.”Conclusions: The study advances theoretical understanding by refining the conceptual system of “diagnosis–reconstruction” in rural spatial studies, innovates methodologically by integrating remote sensing–based quantitative diagnostics with qualitative cultural perception, and contributes practically by offering an operational spatial governance toolkit for rural revitalization. The DESF framework demonstrates strong applicability, scalability, and international reference value for sustainable rural development and policy-making under global urbanization dynamics.

Abstract: The agrarian sector, as the key source of livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), has become highly vulnerable to changes in extension service deliveries. Limited access to technical advice, financial loans and farming input mixed with environmental challenges require an understanding of how multi-functional actor relationships determine agricultural knowledge and exchange of information. This study contributes to filling this gap by characterizing horizontal and vertical interactions. By applying a social network analysis, we mapped actor relations along public-private-community co-operations to provide insights into structural dependencies at different administrative levels. Related to three sites distributed over Burkina Faso and Ghana, local perceptions were collected in stakeholder workshops to generate social network narratives. These narratives were analyzed by various metrics to identify patterns of partnerships and key actors. Study results reveal for Burkina Faso a slight shared network topology, while both sites in Ghana reflect a top-down flow of knowledge and information. The statistical findings indicate that agricultural extension services are primarily delivered to farmers through a few key actors such as NGOs and farm-based organizations/ cooperatives. Especially at the community level, the results show many reciprocal links between farmers, business actors and NGOs. This highlights a shift toward a pluralistic agricultural extension service system and underpins the demand for policies to support the long-term viability of these actors, in particular for regions where public extension agents are under-represented.

Abstract: The analysis of changing trends of river runoff and sediment discharge and the exploration of their causes are of great significance for formulating sustainable development measures for river basin systems. Based on methods such as trend test, mutation detection, and regression analysis, this study conducts a systematic comparative research on the water-sediment processes in the river reach where large-scale cascaded reservoirs connected end to end are located in the upper Yangtze River, and obtains the following key research progress: For the study reach (between Sanduizi and Xiangjiaba Stations) during the period of 1966–2023, the change rates of annual incoming and outgoing runoff were 2.88×10⁸ m³‧yr⁻¹ and −0.186×10⁸ m³‧yr⁻¹ respectively, accounting for 0.017% and 0.013% of the annual average runoff. The changing trends were not significant. During the same period, the change rates of suspended sediment load (SSL) at the inlet and outlet of this river reach were −8.0×10⁵ t‧yr⁻¹ and −46×10⁵ t‧yr⁻¹ respectively, accounting for 1.25% and 2.45% of their respective annual average sediment discharge. The SSL showed a significant decreasing trend, which was particularly characterized by a sharp reduction at the outlet. The massive sediment retention and multi-mode operation of cascaded reservoirs are the fundamental reasons for the variation of the water-sediment relationship and the sharp decrease in annual SSL in this reach, and they also lead to an obvious adjustment of water and sediment in the river basin that "cuts peaks and fills valleys" within a year. Climate change and other human activities have reduced the sediment input in the study reach. Looking forward to the next few decades, climate factors will remain the dominant factor affecting the inter-annual variation of runoff in the study area. In contrast, human activities such as reservoir operation will continue to fully control the sediment output of the river reach and also restrict the annual distribution of water and sediment. The results of this study can provide a reference for predicting the changing trends of water and sediment in similar river reaches with cascaded reservoir groups and formulating effective river management measures.

Abstract: This study analyzes the locational characteristics of temples and shrines within the Namerigawa river basin in Kamakura, focusing on the characteristic landform known as "Yatsu valley". While previous studies on Kamakura have examined historical and tourism-related aspects, few have investigated the spatial relationship between religious sites and geography. Using GIS-based national land numerical data and field surveys, this research classified 56 temples and shrines by environmental type, historical period, and religious sect. Results indicate that a significant number were built in Yatsu valley, especially during the Kamakura period. Many Yatsu valley names reflect historical temple associations, even if the original structures no longer exist. Furthermore, temporal patterns show shifts in dominant sects, such as the Jodo-Shu and Nichiren-Shu after 1260. Spatial analysis reveals a concentration of temples near specific watershed and water networks, particularly where water access is optimal. This study contributes a geo-graphical perspective to the field of historical and religious site research in Kamakura and underscores the need for comparative studies in other watersheds to deepen under-standing of temple and shrine distribution across the region.