Abstract: One hundred and sixteen million equines are in contact with humans today and contribute to the flourishing or demise of our planet. The implications of the mental attributes attached to sentience are reviewed in the light of equine welfare and their environmental effects. A detailed assessment of sentient equines mental aptitudes points out that several mental aptitudes that have previously been considered unique to humans must also be present in equines. Several of these are then discussed including social contracts, moral agency, collective intentionality, and desire independent reason with examples from human equine interactions. Out mutual moral obligations as a consequence are discussed As a result of this increased understanding of equine ontology ( their world view), we can delineate positive welfare for equines in their husbandry,

Abstract: Traditional ideas about cognitive evolution often treat learning and instinct as zero-sum substitutes, where increased plasticity necessarily displaces hard-wired routines. We challenge this "substitution-only" view using economic concepts and by considering evolutionary implications of “behavioural hypercycles”: i.e., teams of modular component behaviours coordinated toward a functional task. This shows that, while intermediate brain sizes can indeed favour the substitution of instinct for flexible learning, larger nervous systems trigger a sort of "Income Effect" which changes the optimal allocation between how growing neural resources are dedicated between learning and instinct. Rather than displacing one another, sophisticated learning and extensive instinctive repertoires can evolve as adaptive complements under identifiable conditions. We further show that this trade-off is likely level-specific: evolution preferentially canalizes reusable, high-burden primitives (i.e., genetically assimilating behavioural components that are especially costly or difficult to learn) while leaving task-specific links plastic (e.g., subject to goal-directed control). Our analysis suggests that hypercyclic organization is a fundamental principle of complex agency, where instinct provides the reliable scaffold that makes sophisticated learning affordable. Our model is consistent with several lines of evidence (behavioural, genetical, neurological), likely applies broadly to any animals capable of complex behaviour, and points to a range of empirically testable predictions.

Abstract: Background: Transitional age youth aged 18-25 years are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, displaying significantly higher alcohol and illicit drug use levels than adolescents and older adults. College students are particularly vulnerable at this critical life juncture as transitioning to adulthood may impact emotional health and well-being, contributing to anxiety, depression, and feelings of hopelessness, all of which are linked to increased risk of substance use and disorders. In 2018, we launched the MAPme Project to pilot a multi-site, longitudinal, college-based study intending to increase the foundational understanding of substance use and behavior development in diverse groups of young adults. Objective: To characterize the design and status of the MAPme Project, a prospective longitudinal study centered on substance use and emotional wellness during and beyond college. Participants: The pilot cohort comprised 301 college freshmen who completed online assessments at baseline (Wave 1). Methods: We provide descriptive information on the pilot cohort, along with preliminary associations of pre- and early collegiate substance use outcomes, psychopathology, sleep patterns, and personality traits. Results: Approximately 64% of participants reported use of a substance in the 90 days leading up to college. Alcohol and cannabis were the most prevalent substances used with males consuming more alcohol than females (t-value=-2.66, p=0.01). Females reported greater levels of daily stressors and mood symptoms. Other health and personality characteristics and observed associations between psychosocial risk and protective factors are described. Prior studies demonstrate the ability to test research hypotheses in the social, health, and clinical areas of psychology with robust statistical power. Conclusions: Substance use and emotional well-being vary considerably upon entry into college/university. The MAPme Project encourages the engagement of students to address challenges associated with lack of awareness, inclusivity, and acceptance of scientific research. Overcoming barriers of inclusivity and empowering the community is key to the successful adoption and implementation of campus health and community-oriented research programs and systematically enhancing research training. Students and faculty interested in bringing MAPme to their campus community should or outreach page at https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/mapme/participant-requirements/ and sign-up page at https://forms.gle/puC7T2zS91td3rA98.

Abstract: Large language models (LLMs) show considerable promise for mental health dialogue systems, yet their deployment raises pressing concerns around safety, hallucination, reproducibility, and clinical reliability (Ji et al., 2023; Bommasani et al., 2021). We present a deterministic architecture for AI-assisted counseling that combines retrieval-augmented response generation, structured dialogue management, rule-based risk routing, and a cryptographically verifiable evaluation pipeline. The system was evaluated on two independent datasets spanning 1,895 counseling scenarios in English and Chinese. On 783 English counseling cases, the system achieved mean scores of 4.33/5 for empathy, 3.55/5 for clinical fidelity, and 4.45/5 for safety. On 1,112 Chinese cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) scenarios, the corresponding scores were 4.85/5, 4.73/5, and 4.77/5. No system failures or unintended diagnostic outputs were observed across either evaluation. Ablation experiments demonstrate that retrieval grounding and deterministic safety routing each contribute significantly to overall performance, with the former driving clinical fidelity and the latter driving safety. These results suggest that deterministic, retrieval-grounded LLM architectures can serve as a viable foundation for scalable and safe psychological support systems.

Abstract: Although Homo sapiens remains the only species with clearly documented religious systems, archaeological evidence suggests that other archaic humans may have exhibited behaviors associated with proto-religious thought, including symbolic practices and possible mortuary rituals. In particular, Homo neanderthalensis and the population known as Denisovans possessed large and complex brains, including well-developed frontal regions associated with social cognition and symbolic processing. This article explores the possibility that these archaic humans possessed early conceptualizations of death and mortality that could represent precursors to later religious ideas. By examining archaeological evidence, genetic research on archaic introgression, and theories from evolutionary anthropology and cognitive science of religion, the study investigates how interactions between archaic humans and modern humans may have contributed to the cognitive and cultural foundations of religious thought. Particular attention is given to the potential influence of archaic genetic heritage on cognitive traits related to agency detection, social cohesion, and attitudes toward death. The article also discusses whether such evolutionary and cognitive influences may have indirectly shaped later religious traditions in different cultural contexts, including both Western and Eastern religious systems. While direct causal connections remain difficult to establish, this study aims to provide an interdisciplinary framework for understanding how archaic human populations may have contributed to the deep evolutionary roots of human religiosity.

Abstract: Behavioural ecotoxicology is a field of applied ecotoxicology, where researchers consider the alterations in the behavioural markers due to the impact of environmental toxicants or contaminants. In fact, understanding the changes in behavioural manifestations helps to understand the respective underlying neurological mechanisms in the organisms and therefore, it effectively helps to describe or predict the neuro-behavioural context of behavioural modifications due to exposure to anthropogenic pollutants. Through this review we are addressing how environmentally available chemicals (such as pesticides, heavy metals (or metalloids), plastics and also pharmaceuticals can have significant acute and/or long-term impact on the behavioural profile of organisms (bioindicator species).

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Motor competence is a multidimensional indicator of developmental health, yet most studies treat it as a single composite outcome and ignore the contextual class-level structure of school-based data. This cross-sectional study examined motor competence across three domains, manual dexterity, aiming-catching, and balance, in 312 Greek primary school children aged 6–12 years (156 girls) using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (MABC-2). Methods: Standard scores were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model with correlated domain-specific random slopes at both the class and student levels, partitioning inter-individual variability in overall motor level, intra-individual variability in domain profiles, and contextual class-level contributions. Post-hoc power analysis via parametric bootstrap confirmed adequate power for the primary outcome and indicated that non-significant age and sex main effects were negligibly small rather than undetected. Results: Balance yielded the highest standard scores, followed by aiming-catching and manual dexterity, with all three domains differing significantly. Neither age nor sex produced significant main effects. A significant component × sex interaction revealed domain-specific sex differences: boys outperformed girls on aiming-catching, while balance exceeded aiming-catching among girls but not boys. However, the observed interaction effect fell below the minimum detectable effect size threshold, suggesting potential upward bias and warranting cautious interpretation pending replication in larger samples. Approximately 13% of children were classified as at risk and 9% showed scores consistent with severe coordination difficulties. Contextual class-level sources accounted for 23.4% of total variance, with 52% of classes deviating significantly from the population mean. Conclusions: These findings highlight manual dexterity as a curricular priority in Greek primary physical education and underscore the importance of contextually sensitive, domain-specific approaches to motor competence monitoring and intervention.

Abstract: Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the leading cause of dementia worldwide. Its hallmarks are extracellular amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau forming neurofibrillary tangles, leading to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal loss. Despite extensive research, the mechanisms driving these proteinopathies and the contribution of genetic, molecular, and environmental factors remain unclear. Objective: This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying AD and the factors influencing its onset and progression. Methods: A narrative review of peer-reviewed studies from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted. Relevant articles on neuropathology, molecular pathways, genetic susceptibility, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and metabolic and lifestyle risk factors were analyzed. Results: AD is marked by Aβ accumulation and tau pathology, causing synaptic and neuronal loss. Key mechanisms include abnormal amyloid precursor protein processing, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and calcium dysregulation. Genetic variants (APP, PSEN1, PSEN2, APOE ε4) increase risk, while aging, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and lifestyle factors further influence disease onset and progression. Conclusion: AD arises from complex interactions among molecular and environmental factors. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing preventive strategies and effective therapies, with personalized approaches offering future promise.

Abstract: Background: Criminal behaviour has been modelled through sociological, psychological, and biological lenses, yet mechanistic integration across subjective experience, neural processes, and social niche remains limited. Existing frameworks identify risk factors and correlates but rarely specify the computational mechanism through which adverse environments produce criminal inference. Framework: Active Inference (Free Energy Principle) provides a unified computational architecture in which perception, action, and learning are driven by the minimisation of variational free energy under precision-weighted prediction errors. We apply this framework to criminal behaviour, proposing that crime arises from systematic dysregulation of precision weighting within hierarchical generative models, shaped by the interaction between neural architecture and social niche. Model: We specify three distinct pathomechanisms: (1) niche-induced prior rigidity, mapping onto life-course-persistent delinquency; (2) vertical hierarchy collapse, mapping onto crimes of passion; and (3) failed inference repair, explaining recidivism as a systemic prediction of the model. Differential pathways: The model is transdiagnostic: the same upstream precision-weighting dysregulation can produce criminal behaviour, depression, anxiety, or somatic conditions depending on specific niche configuration, policy-precision parameters, and available action models. We formally specify the conditions under which the externalising (criminal) pathway dominates and argue, from a medical perspective, that this pathway warrants particular attention because it is therapeutically underserved, generates additional self-harm through moral injury, and is addressed by a justice system that systematically reinforces the underlying pathology. Predictions: Three falsifiable predictions are derived, each targeting a different pathway: (1) shifted dopaminergic value-learning in juvenile offenders, (2) PFC–amygdala decoupling in crimes of passion, and (3) superiority of inference-based rehabilitation over standard reintegration programmes. The proposed Inference Repair Programme (IRP) targets the generative model itself—not merely behavioural policies—and therefore aims at restoration of inferential flexibility rather than re-normalisation. Epistemic status: The Free Energy Principle as a mathematical principle is unfalsifiable, analogous to Hamilton’s principle of least action. Active Inference as a process theory is falsifiable. Empirical validation to date is in a stage of productive exploration: models explain behavioural data reasonably well but have been applied predominantly post hoc (Hodson et al., 2024). The present predictions offer an opportunity to test Active Inference in a novel domain with genuinely novel predictions.

Abstract: NSSI is often framed as emotion regulation, self-punishment, or interpersonal influence, yet these accounts under-specify how mobilization becomes urgent affect, why NSSI wins moment-to-moment behavioral competition, and how attachment constraint shapes whether anger-linked action readiness is routed outward or inward. The Arousal Appraisal Model (AAM) treats emotion as one regime within a broader control problem: calibrating physiological mobilization to state-dependent deployable capacity for coherent expression and integrative processing. The Survival Architecture of Coping (SArC) frames severe self-harm risk as system states that emerge when activation (urgency/action-readiness) rises as deployable coping capacity declines across biological, cognitive, relational, and meaning domains. Integrating AAM and SArC, this paper conceptualizes NSSI as a learned, high-control state-transition policy that becomes increasingly selectable when mobilization/activation rises under high constraint appraisal and low deployable capacity. Developmentally, a common pathway is proposed in which anger-linked mobilization is routed inward when outward expression is appraised as unsafe, forbidden, futile, or relationally catastrophic; punitive self-appraisals may then function as a permission/coherence scaffold that authorizes injury while preserving attachment and immediate safety. The model yields falsifiable predictions for intensive longitudinal research and clinical implications emphasizing capacity restoration, constraint repair, legitimization of anger as signal (not aggression), and expansion of safe throughput pathways.

Abstract: Purpose: Chronotyping is a key methodology for assessing individual differences in human adaptation to 24-h periodicity of geophysical and social environments. Throughout the 50-yr period of publications on chronotype questionnaires, there has been steady growth in number and diversity. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly difficult to determine which questionnaires can be optimally applied to address a given question in sleep and biological rhythm research. Consequently, this study aimed to develop a structured system for classifying and comparing chronotype questionnaires.Methods: The PubMed bibliographic database and 9 previously published reviews were searched for publications on chronotype questionnaires and/or their implementation in chronobiological and sleep studies.Results: A total of 75 questionnaires were identified, of which 60 and 15 were designed for only chronotype and chronotype and something else assessment, respectively. The proposed set of 20 questionnaire and questionnaire scale properties allows the distinction of any of the 60 questionnaires from the 59 other questionnaires.Conclusion: The structured system of questionnaire classification (“questionnaire identifier”) was proposed to help in navigating between numerous published questionnaires for choosing an optimal instrument for self-assessment of individual differences in a study of sleep and biological rhythms and for predicting properties of yet-unconstructed questionnaires.

Abstract: The development of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) enabled humans to acquire advanced communication skills, distinguishing them as highly social compared to other species. Communication emerged not merely as a functional adaptation but as a fundamental property of the human brain, facilitating the formation of hierarchies, cooperation, and complex societies. This core social drive shaped both individual and collective behavior, providing the foundation for intricate cultural systems. Within this context, memes—defined as replicable units of cultural information—developed as a complementary cultural mechanism, influencing the spread of ideas and behaviors alongside genetic evolution. Memes reflect and enhance humanity’s natural predisposition for interaction, serving as vehicles for social learning, identity formation, and group cohesion. This study examines the interplay between the evolution of the human brain, the emergence of social memes, and their role in shaping cognitive processes and societal organization. By exploring these dynamics, we highlight how the human tendency for communication underlies cultural evolution and the mechanisms through which societies create, transmit, and maintain shared knowledge and social structures.

Abstract: The origin of the concept of God is a central question at the intersection of neuroscience, cognitive science, and social theory. This review proposes an integrative model in which religious belief emerges as an interaction between neurocognitive mechanisms, genetic predispositions, and sociocultural influences. Specifically, neural circuits including ventromedial prefrontal-limbic networks (vmPFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) support emotional valuation and rational evaluation of supernatural agents, while dopaminergic and serotonergic pathways reinforce meaningful experiences. Genetic and temperamental factors modulate individual responsiveness to these neural processes, and sociocultural institutions shape beliefs into stable, culturally transmitted concepts. By synthesizing evidence across neural, genetic, and social levels, the paper demonstrates that the idea of God is neither purely biologically determined nor solely culturally constructed, but an emergent phenomenon. This integrative perspective provides a mechanistic explanation for the universality of religious belief, its variability across cultures, and offers concrete directions for testing predictions in neuroimaging, genetic, and cross-cultural studies.

Abstract: Aeropalynology the monitoring and interpretation of airborne pollen has become increasingly relevant in Latin America as allergic rhinitis and asthma rise alongside rapid urbanization, land‑use change, and climate variability. Yet the region’s capacity remains heterogeneous: long‑standing traditions in the Southern Cone coexist with emerging programs in tropical and Andean settings, and many series are not translated into standardized products useful for clinical care or public health. We conducted a structured literature review guided by PRISMA 2020 to synthesize the historical evolution, current monitoring infrastructure, dominant pollen taxa, and translational outputs reported across Latin American countries. Evidence indicates that Mexico currently represents the most mature aeropalynological ecosystem in the region, supported by multi‑site monitoring, open weekly reporting (REMA), multiple city‑level pollen calendars, and emerging computational approaches for pollen identification. Across countries, recurrent high‑impact taxa include Cupressaceae/Juniperus, Fraxinus, Platanus, Olea, Poaceae, Urticaceae, Chenopodiaceae–Amaranthaceae, Rumex, Ambrosia, and Parietaria, with local dominance shaped by biogeography and urban vegetation. Key gaps include limited long‑term continuity outside a few cities, variable methodology (sampler type, taxonomic resolution, units, thresholds), and scarce linkage of pollen exposure metrics with clinical outcomes. Future priorities include harmonized volumetric monitoring, interoperable data standards, routine publication of pollen calendars and thresholds, integration with meteorology for forecasting, and expansion of digital decision‑support tools to improve prevention and management of allergic respiratory diseases in Latin America.

Abstract: Brief post-learning wakeful resting periods and local sleep mechanisms have been proposed to support offline memory consolidation processes. Mind-wandering (MW), thought to reflect the occurrence or need for local sleep, has been linked to momentary attentional disengagement and may index transitions toward offline processing states. We hypothesized that resting opportunities administered immediately after probe-caught MW episodes reflecting local sleep need may selectively enhance memory consolidation. In a first experiment, participants learned 5 blocks of 8 paired-associate words; a MW thought probe was administered after each block. In the MW condition, participants were allowed a 3-minute quiet, offline pause after the block if they reported MW. In the control condition, no pause was administered. Consolidation was better in the MW than the control condition, supporting the hypothesis. However, Experiment 2 tested the MW-related pause effect by comparing the MW condition to a condition in which pauses were allowed irrespective of MW. Results showed that performance equally improved in both conditions, suggesting that post-learning pause effects would not be MW-specific. However, additional analyses evidenced a positive relationship between MW intensity and memory consolidation in both experiments. Our findings suggest that transient interruption of input during a declarative learning session may favor memory consoli-dation at wake, partially independently of the attentional state.

Abstract:

High-performance athletes operate in demanding environments requiring simultaneous coordination of multiple cognitive and motor tasks. This study developed a novel dual-task protocol combining continuous visuomotor tracking with discrete attentional vigilance to investigate temporal dynamics of dual-task interference in young athletes. Thirty-six participants from interceptive and static sports performed the dual-task paradigm while behavioral performance metrics were continuously recorded. Adapting event-related potential methodology to behavioral data, we computed Event-Related Behavioral Potentials (ERBPs) to characterize time-locked performance changes. Results revealed a significant Dual-Task Effect (DTE) with distinct temporal components: an early perceptual interference phase around 450 ms post-stimulus and a later decision-execution phase extending to 1400 ms. Friedman tests confirmed significant performance differences across temporal windows (\( \chi^2 \)(4) = 85.32, p < 0.001), with performance returning to baseline by 1500 ms. The ERBP analysis enabled quantification of DTE amplitude, latency, and duration—providing novel metrics for continuous assessment of cognitive-motor interference. Target events elicited pronounced performance degradation compared to non-target events (peak difference: 10.5 px, latency difference: 350 ms), indicating sensitivity to decision-making processes beyond motor execution. Exploratory comparisons between sport groups revealed trends suggesting differential interference patterns, though no significant between-group differences emerged. These findings demonstrate that ERBP analysis offers a powerful framework for dissecting temporal dynamics of dual-task performance, with implications for understanding attentional resource allocation in high-demand environments and potential applications in sports training and cognitive assessment.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Childhood obesity remains a major public health issue, particularly in Mediterranean countries such as Greece. Although parental influences on children’s weight have been extensively studied, fewer studies have jointly examined parental mental health, feeding practices, sociodemographic factors and biological stress markers. This study aimed to investigate associations between psychological status, educational level, feeding behaviors and children’s Body Mass Index (BMI) in a Greek sample. A pilot assessment of salivary cortisol was included in evaluating its feasibility as an objective biomarker of parental stress. Subjects and Methods: A total of 103 parent-child dyads participated in this cross-sectional study. Children’s BMI was classified using World Health Organization (WHO) Growth Standards. Parental stress, anxiety and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale-14 (PSS-14) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) questionnaires. Feeding practices were evaluated with the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ). Statistical analyses included Pearson correlations, independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests. A subsample provided saliva samples for cortisol analysis to assess feasibility and explore potential associations with parental stress indicators. Results: Parental BMI showed a strong positive association with child BMI (p = 0.002). Higher parental anxiety (p = 0.002) and depression (p = 0.009) were also associated with increased child BMI. Restrictive (p < 0.001) and emotion-driven (p < 0.001) feeding practices were associated to higher child BMI, whereas monitoring (p = 0.013) and health-promoting feeding practices (p = 0.001) appeared protective. Lower parental education was related to higher BMI in both parents (p = 0.001) and children (p = 0.002) and to more frequent use of restrictive feeding strategies (p = 0.001). WHO charts identified a greater proportion of children as overweight or obese compared with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria. The analysis showed statistically significant differences between the two classification systems (χ² (4) = 159.704, p < 0.001), indicating that BMI categorization varies considerably depending on the reference system used. No significant associations were observed with residential environment or salivary cortisol, likely due to the limited size of the pilot biomarker subsample. Conclusions: The findings highlight the combined effect of parental mental health status, educational level and feeding practices on child BMI within the Greek context. The preliminary inclusion of a biological stress marker provides added value to existing research in this area. These results underscore the importance of prevention strategies that promote parental psychological wellbeing, and responsive feeding practices while addressing socioeconomic disparities to reduce childhood obesity risk.

Abstract: Erythropoietin (EPO), the master regulator of erythropoiesis, is emerging as a pivotal mediator of brain repair. While its capacity to mitigate neural damage is well-documented, we posit that its most profound potential lies in actively orchestrating functional restoration. In the present review we summarize the molecular biology of EPO and the evidence establishing EPO as a potent modulator of neuroplasticity. We use an experimental strategy in which a specific behavioral task marks experience-activated neural circuits, and a subsequent, temporally precise administration of EPO provides a surge of plasticity-related proteins. This creates a synergistic interaction where the proteins are selectively captured by the activated synapses, directing plastic changes with high specificity. We present experimental evidence demonstrating that this synchronized protocol enables the recovery of spatial memory, reinstates synaptic plasticity, and activates genetic programs for plasticity in rodent models of brain injury. Furthermore, we show that endogenous EPO signaling is itself activity-dependent and integral to memory formation. This redefines EPO as a precision tool for neurorestoration, a potential now being pursued with engineered, non-erythropoietic variants of EPO in clinical trials for neurological and psychiatric disorders

Abstract: The importance of micronutrient status on human food choice remains a fundamental issue needing further investigation. By definition, essential nutrients must be consumed in sufficient amounts to meet an individual’s requirements. While data indicate that complex neuroendocrine mechanisms provide negative-feedback control of energy and protein intake to support homeostasis, corresponding mechanisms controlling micronutrient intake are less well studied. In some contexts, they are explicitly assumed to be absent, specifically for models evaluating safety and risks of deficiencies. However, it may be hypothesized that for at least some micronutrients, mechanisms exist that aid attainment of requirements by altering preference for micronutrient-rich foods so as to increase ingestion of foods containing them, similar to how being thirsty increases the appeal of watermelon compared with dry food. If this hypothesis is correct, it may hold important implications for understanding the types and quantities of foods ingested. Greater appeal of foods richer in essential nutrients may reduce the risk of malnutrition. However, by extension, it may be posited that the use of supplements could confound the most healthful food choices. For example, obtaining vitamin C from supplements or fortified foods could then causally reduce the dietary intake of vegetables and fruits by reducing the appeal of these foods. The unintended consequence may be lower intake of fiber, nitrate and phytochemicals, food constituents that may contribute to health without being essential nutrients themselves. This hypothesis can and should be tested empirically, for example through randomized placebo-controlled supplementation trials. If clear causal effects are documented, clinical and public health guidance will require critical evaluation and possible modification.

Abstract: The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went back to check the corresponding target word for spelling errors that had been added after reading. The regression target was located either close to or far from the probe. Eye movement measures included the size of initial regressions, regression error, number of regressions and time to reach the target. Assessments of spatial memory capacity and reading skill served to determine the use of spatial and linguistic knowledge. Responses were classified into five different visuomotor strategies: single shot regressions, goal directed regressions (with corrections), centered searches, forward searches, and backward searches. Consistent with prior work, initial regressions were larger for far than for near targets, and the finding of far targets required more eye movements and more search time. Spatial memory and reading skill made distinct contributions to regression targeting. Memory skills strongly determined primary regressions especially to near targets, whereas reading ability influenced the time needed to attain targets with subsequent saccades.