Biology and Life Sciences

Abstract: A targeted cross-species retro-analysis was conducted using three independent published datasets to test whether the DNA demethylase recruiter gadd45b occupies a functionally distinct category from canonical immediate early genes (IEGs). Whereas canonical IEGs generally respond to sufficiently intense neural or behavioral stimulation, gadd45b appears to be preferentially induced by genuine social engagement and social outcome resolution. In Betta splendens, gadd45bb (BSP_05575) was not differentially expressed after 20 minutes of fighting (logFC=+0.34, FDR=0.87) but increased after 60 minutes of sustained mutual assessment (logFC=+1.74, FDR=8.9×10⁻⁵) and reached its highest expression at or immediately following social outcome determination (logFC=+2.02, FDR=1.4×10⁻⁵). In zebra finch, singing-prevented adults—chronologically mature birds prevented from executing vocal learning—retained juvenile-like dendritic spine density in RA-projection neurons (p=0.774 versus juveniles; p=1.14×10⁻⁶ versus adults), while gadd45b expression distinguished singing adults from singing-prevented adults in HVC (p=0.014). Together with a zebrafish mirror-versus-real-opponent dissociation, these findings are consistent with gadd45b functioning not as a generic activity sensor but as a molecular mechanism engaged when socially assessed behavioral interactions are completed and their outcomes resolved. This property may bear on longstanding questions in neuroendocrinology, where the biological consequences of social conflict depend more strongly on social meaning than on physical intensity alone. The molecular machinery that translates social outcome into durable cellular change remains poorly characterized. Outcome-gated gadd45b-mediated DNA demethylation may represent a genomic form of metaplastic regulation that not only records experience but also modifies the chromatin landscape governing future responses to experience. This framework generates experimentally testable predictions regarding the molecular encoding of social outcome.

Abstract: Dogs follow human pointing gestures to one of two options at above chance level, but only slightly. The finding in focus is the remarkable smallness of this effect. If dogs understand the referential aspect of human pointing gestures, why do they make so many mistakes? One potential explanation relates to the motivational context created by the presence of food rewards in such tasks. When foraging, dogs meander, a focal search strategy characterized by a high turning rate. Even if a dog understands the gesture and heads in the correct direction, moved by this behavioural mode, they may turn away before reaching the correct option. Poor success rates may be an effect of performance factors, not necessarily competence. To address this possibility, the present study manipulated the affordances of the circumstance. In experiment 1, we assessed the effect of erecting physical barriers between options (i.e., a radial arm maze) to restrict meandering. In experiment 2, we added corridors of scent leading to each option (“scent maze”). We observed no difference in success rates. The manipulations of affordances did not appear to affect dogs’ success rates, which suggests the dogs’ low success rate is not due to unexpected effects of local foraging strategies. With this alternative explanation refuted, pressure is back on questions about dogs’ competencies related to intentionality and the referential nature of pointing gestures.

Abstract: Background: The escalating global burden of complex chronic diseases and severe mental health challenges represents a significant limitation of reductionist healthcare paradigms. We propose that health is not merely the absence of disease, but rather a dynamic state of coherence across three integrated domains: biological, psychological, and noetic (consciousness-related). This review evaluates emerging technologies and interventions designed to restore this tripartite coherence.Objective: To systematically synthesize and critically evaluate the scientific evidence for technologies and interventions aligned with the ReGEN framework's seven pillars: Light, Water, Frequency, Energy, Breath, Intention, and Food.Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we conducted a systematic narrative literature search across PubMed, IEEE Xplore, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Library (2010–2024), following PRISMA 2020 reporting guidelines. Included studies were evaluated against five criteria: biophysical plausibility, evidence quality, biomarker correlates, safety profile, and transdisciplinary alignment. Technologies were graded (A-D) based on evidence strength.Results: From 2,148 identified records, 215 studies met inclusion criteria after systematic screening. Our analysis identified a "Foundational Triad" of interventions with the strongest mechanistic plausibility and evidence base: Photobiomodulation (Light Pillar, Grade A), Coherent Breathing (Breath Pillar, Grade A), and Focused Intention (Intention Pillar, Grade B). These pillars demonstrate significant combined potential for initiating systemic healing cascades. Technologies targeting the Frequency and Energy pillars showed more preliminary evidence (Grade B-C), requiring further rigorous validation.Conclusion: The ReGEN framework provides a comprehensive transdisciplinary taxonomy for classifying and evaluating coherence-enhancing technologies. Convergent evidence across multiple scientific disciplines supports the complementary application of photobiomodulation, coherent breathing, and focused intention as a potent, non-invasive approach for restoring systemic coherence. This synthesis outlines a verification protocol via a Tripartite Coherence Index and identifies critical research priorities for advancing this emerging paradigm.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Conventional psychometric instruments generally show limited ability to correlate with circulating biological markers. ADNe® is a 29-item psychogenic instrument based on a neurotransmitter-weighted response framework, designed to model functional patterns of neurobiological activation rather than classify personality traits. This study aimed to explore whether ADNe® neurofactor scores are associated with plasma concentrations of cortisol, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and testosterone in healthy adults. Methods: Twenty healthy volunteers (15 women, 5 men; mean age 30.3 ± 9.6 years, range 22–61) completed the ADNe® questionnaire and provided a peripheral blood sample on the same day. Plasma was isolated by centrifugation (400 × g, 5 min), and biomarker levels were quantified using ELISA. Statistical analyses included Spearman rank correlations and exploratory multiple linear regression models using the seven neurofactors as simultaneous predictors. Results: Significant associations were identified between selected neurofactors and biomarkers. Sm (attentional amplitude) showed an inverse correlation with testosterone (ρ = −0.567; p = 0.022), while Mn (strategic acuity) was inversely associated with IL-6 (ρ = −0.489; p = 0.046). Exploratory multivariate models showed high apparent explanatory capacity within this dataset (R² = 0.848 for IL-6, 0.735 for testosterone, and 0.569 for cortisol). However, given the small sample size and the number of predictors included, these estimates should be interpreted with caution. Conclusions: In this pilot study, ADNe® neurofactor profiles showed associations with circulating biomarkers, suggesting that this approach may capture dimensions related to physiological regulation. Nevertheless, the findings are exploratory and may be influenced by overfitting and unmeasured confounding variables. Independent replication in larger, pre-registered studies with appropriate validation strategies will be necessary to confirm the robustness and generalizability of these results.

Abstract: Memory encoding depends on the joint convergence of substrate readiness, internal drive, environmental input, and a permissive temporal–physiological state. The same logic recurs across vertebrate learning systems: hippocampal-dependent spatial and schema-modulated memory (the Navigia substrate in the Systema Behavorum taxonomy), filial imprinting in the chick intermediate medial mesopallium (Lorenz's prägung), vocal learning in the songbird auditory pallium, and Pavlovian conditioning in the basolateral amygdala and ventral striatum. Despite differences in substrate, timescale, and output, writing events are gated by the multiplicative convergence of substrate (A), drive (D), content/context (C), and a permissive state (Φ); retrieval is gated by a parallel conjunction on the same substrate; and behavioral output depends on the match between current input and the stored trace. The framework specifies f in Lewin's B = f(P, E) as the multiplicative threshold A × D × C × Φ ≥ T, decomposing person and environment into computationally separable terms with empirical signatures.Three contributions advance beyond descriptive integration. First, retrieval is formalized as ARCH × Φ-gated in the same form as encoding, generating dissociation predictions between trace-degradation and Φ-mediated retrieval failures that current accounts do not formalize. Second, inherited priors (ethology) and acquired schemas (Tse, Morris, and colleagues) are unified under the same conjunctive logic, both biasing C through Bayesian-like prior weighting. Third, the multiplicative form generates a quantitatively precise prediction — supra-additive failure under combined partial perturbations — that distinguishes the framework from interactionist accounts; a tractable 2 × 2 factorial in chick imprinting is developed in §4.7, with detection power calculated in Appendix A.The framework yields four testable predictions. Single-domain perturbation should cause categorical encoding failure regardless of other domains. Combined partial perturbations should produce supra-additive failure distinguishable from additive null models in factorial designs not yet performed in any of the four systems. Reading-event Φ-suppression should produce retrieval failures dissociable from trace-degradation failures. Pharmacological Φ-modulators (ketamine, psilocybin, MDMA) are reframed as substrate-state modulators that widen the retrieval envelope, converting reading events into writing events, and supply a clinical-translational test. The framework is offered as a falsifiable account of common computational structure across vertebrate memory systems.

Abstract: Anthropogenic prehistory may be divided into two subsequent phases, the first one from the Last Common Ancestor (LCA) between humans and great apes till the emergence of the genus Homo, and the second phase onwards from then. Until hominins appeared, LCA had lived predominantly on trees, while Homo finally lived only on the ground. The intermediate bimodal transition period was coined by the emergence of systematic bipedal gait, breaking the previously uniform locomotion symmetry. By contrast to versions of the common savannah hypothesis, this paper suggests an alternative fictitious scenario by which migration between seasonally inhabitable arboreal refuges, possibly caused by regional climate change, forced hominins to genetically develop speedy and efficient bipedal locomotion for survival during their temporary but extended regular excursions across open territory. Increasingly upright locomotion resulted in offspring’s early weaning, and in turn in the emergence of childhood with enhanced lethal risks for toddlers. Related selective pressure caused transformations of reproductive traits from gradual sexual selection in apes to undulating sexual conflicts in hominins. Between LCA and Homo, consistent with fossil evidence, the evolutionary bimodal transition phase did not necessarily require advanced mental capabilities, nor specific communication or new forms of social cooperation such as those successively found in Homo. Assumingly, broken spatial and temporal environmental symmetry had induced related symmetry breaking of hominin behaviour, their anatomic structures and reproduction habits.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Acute exercise can influence executive function, but the neurophysiological responses linking exercise to cognitive change remain unclear. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) provides a feasible method for assessing prefrontal oxygenation during movement-based exercise. This study examined whether prefrontal oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) during exercise was associated with subsequent changes in inhibitory control after aerobic and game-based exercise in young adults.Methods: Twenty-four healthy young adults completed aerobic and game-based exercise conditions in a randomized, counterbalanced, within-subject design. The aerobic condition consisted of jogging, whereas the game-based condition consisted of a pickleball-based activity. Exercise intensity was monitored during both conditions. Prefrontal oxy-Hb was recorded during exercise using fNIRS, and inhibitory control was assessed before and after each condition using an Eriksen Flanker task. The primary behavioral outcome was Flanker cost improvement, and the primary fNIRS outcome was mean baseline-corrected prefrontal oxy-Hb during exercise. Results: Exercise intensity was comparable between conditions. Greater mean prefrontal oxy-Hb during exercise was significantly associated with greater improvement in Flanker cost (β = 3.71 ms per 0.01 μM, 95% CI [2.13, 5.30], p < 0.001). Game-based exercise elicited higher mean prefrontal oxy-Hb during exercise than aerobic exercise. No significant condition difference was observed for Flanker cost improvement. Conclusions: Prefrontal oxygenation during exercise was associated with subsequent improvement in inhibitory control. These findings suggest that neurophysiological responses during exercise may account for some between-person variability in acute exercise-related cognitive benefits.

Abstract: Background: Gender differences in adolescent mental health are well documented; however, the extent to which modifiable behavioral and psychosocial factors account for the excess of mental health problems in females remains insufficiently quantified. Methods: Data from the 2025 Corona and Psyche South Tyrol (COP-S) survey comprised a base sample of 2,428 adolescents aged 11–19 years (51.4% males) with valid self-reported data. Multivariable regression analyses were conducted on 1,448–1,603 adolescents (depending on the outcome) who provided complete responses to the relevant predictor and outcome measures. Gender differences in depression scores (PHQ-2), anxiety scores (SCARED-GAD), and emotional/behavioral difficulties (SDQ) were examined using Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests. Multivariable linear regression models were used to assess the associations between mental health outcomes and the ten predictors. Gender effects were quantified by comparing standardized regression coefficients from unadjusted and adjusted models. Results: Female adolescents reported higher anxiety (median 6 vs. 4; rank-biserial r = 0.24), depression (r = 0.13), and emotional/behavioral (r = 0.08) scores than male adolescents. School stress, problematic Internet use, and poor sleep quality were the strongest predictors of all three outcomes (all p &lt; 0.001). After multivariable adjustment, gender remained a significant predictor of anxiety (β = 0.18) and depressive scores (β = 0.09) but no longer reached significance for emotional/behavioral scores (β = 0.04, p = 0.078). The attenuation of the gender effect ranged from 25.3% for anxiety to 37.1% for depression and 58.5% for emotional/behavioral difficulties. Conclusions: Gender differences in adolescent mental health are partially explained by modifiable behavioral and psychosocial factors, with the excess of females in emotional/behavioral scores fully accounted for by these covariates. Persistent gender disparities in anxiety indicate the need for anxiety-specific preventive strategies that target mechanisms beyond the measured behavioral correlates.

Abstract: This paper starts with surveying the evolution of quantum-like models of cognition and decision making, transitioning from static kinematic representations to a robust dynamical framework based on open quantum systems. We provide a comprehensive analysis of the Gorini-Kossakowski-Sudarshan-Lindblad (GKSL) master equation's application in cognitive psychology and decision making, illustrating how it models mental state evolution as a dissipative process influenced by an informational environment. We categorize dynamical regimes into Passive and Active Hamiltonians, demonstrating how non-commutation with projections on decision basis serves as a mathematical signature of cognitive agency and Quantum Escape from classical equilibria. The utility of this framework is further explored through its ability to stabilize non-Nash outcomes in strategic games, such as the Prisoner's Dilemma. Building upon this dynamical foundation, we identify ``cognitive beats'' as a signature of the internal struggle between competing ``flows of mind'' deliberated at approximately equal frequencies. Distinct from the damped oscillations of simple interference, these beats emerge from a structural tension between Liouvillian channels that generates a secondary, slow-scale modulation of conviction. This beat envelope dictates the timing of peak readiness and hesitation, providing a mathematical map of the transition between conflicting cognitive states. By resolving these nested time scales, we provide a new spectral diagnostic for the depth of cognitive agency and the complexity of the underlying deliberation process. This paper develops a theoretical framework linking GKSL dynamics with quantum-like cognition and decision-making (QCDM), highlighting how dissipative quantum models can capture features of human thought and decision processes.

Abstract: One hundred and sixteen million equines are in contact with humans today and contribute to the flourishing or demise of our planet. The implications of the mental attributes attached to sentience are reviewed in the light of equine welfare and their environmental effects. A detailed assessment of sentient equines mental aptitudes points out that several mental aptitudes that have previously been considered unique to humans must also be present in equines. Several of these are then discussed including social contracts, moral agency, collective intentionality, and desire independent reason with examples from human equine interactions. Out mutual moral obligations as a consequence are discussed. As a result of this increased understanding of equine ontology (their world view), we can delineate positive welfare for equines in their husbandry, work and interactions with humans, summarised in out mutual moral obligations to each other and the environment but will need humans to emerge from many traditional practises.

Abstract: Traditional ideas about cognitive evolution often treat learning and instinct as zero-sum substitutes, where increased plasticity necessarily displaces hard-wired routines. We challenge this "substitution-only" view using economic concepts and by considering evolutionary implications of “behavioural hypercycles”: i.e., teams of modular component behaviours coordinated toward a functional task. This shows that, while intermediate brain sizes can indeed favour the substitution of instinct for flexible learning, larger nervous systems trigger a sort of "Income Effect" which changes the optimal allocation between how growing neural resources are dedicated between learning and instinct. Rather than displacing one another, sophisticated learning and extensive instinctive repertoires can evolve as adaptive complements under identifiable conditions. We further show that this trade-off is likely level-specific: evolution preferentially canalizes reusable, high-burden primitives (i.e., genetically assimilating behavioural components that are especially costly or difficult to learn) while leaving task-specific links plastic (e.g., subject to goal-directed control). Our analysis suggests that hypercyclic organization is a fundamental principle of complex agency, where instinct provides the reliable scaffold that makes sophisticated learning affordable. Our model is consistent with several lines of evidence (behavioural, genetical, neurological), likely applies broadly to any animals capable of complex behaviour, and points to a range of empirically testable predictions.

Abstract: Background: Transitional age youth aged 18-25 years are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, displaying significantly higher alcohol and illicit drug use levels than adolescents and older adults. College students are particularly vulnerable at this critical life juncture as transitioning to adulthood may impact emotional health and well-being, contributing to anxiety, depression, and feelings of hopelessness, all of which are linked to increased risk of substance use and disorders. In 2018, we launched the MAPme Project to pilot a multi-site, longitudinal, college-based study intending to increase the foundational understanding of substance use and behavior development in diverse groups of young adults. Objective: To characterize the design and status of the MAPme Project, a prospective longitudinal study centered on substance use and emotional wellness during and beyond college. Participants: The pilot cohort comprised 301 college freshmen who completed online assessments at baseline (Wave 1). Methods: We provide descriptive information on the pilot cohort, along with preliminary associations of pre- and early collegiate substance use outcomes, psychopathology, sleep patterns, and personality traits. Results: Approximately 64% of participants reported use of a substance in the 90 days leading up to college. Alcohol and cannabis were the most prevalent substances used with males consuming more alcohol than females (t-value=-2.66, p=0.01). Females reported greater levels of daily stressors and mood symptoms. Other health and personality characteristics and observed associations between psychosocial risk and protective factors are described. Prior studies demonstrate the ability to test research hypotheses in the social, health, and clinical areas of psychology with robust statistical power. Conclusions: Substance use and emotional well-being vary considerably upon entry into college/university. The MAPme Project encourages the engagement of students to address challenges associated with lack of awareness, inclusivity, and acceptance of scientific research. Overcoming barriers of inclusivity and empowering the community is key to the successful adoption and implementation of campus health and community-oriented research programs and systematically enhancing research training. Students and faculty interested in bringing MAPme to their campus community should or outreach page at https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/mapme/participant-requirements/ and sign-up page at https://forms.gle/puC7T2zS91td3rA98.

Abstract: Large language models (LLMs) show considerable promise for mental health dialogue systems, yet their deployment raises pressing concerns around safety, hallucination, reproducibility, and clinical reliability (Ji et al., 2023; Bommasani et al., 2021). We present a deterministic architecture for AI-assisted counseling that combines retrieval-augmented response generation, structured dialogue management, rule-based risk routing, and a cryptographically verifiable evaluation pipeline. The system was evaluated on two independent datasets spanning 1,895 counseling scenarios in English and Chinese. On 783 English counseling cases, the system achieved mean scores of 4.33/5 for empathy, 3.55/5 for clinical fidelity, and 4.45/5 for safety. On 1,112 Chinese cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) scenarios, the corresponding scores were 4.85/5, 4.73/5, and 4.77/5. No system failures or unintended diagnostic outputs were observed across either evaluation. Ablation experiments demonstrate that retrieval grounding and deterministic safety routing each contribute significantly to overall performance, with the former driving clinical fidelity and the latter driving safety. These results suggest that deterministic, retrieval-grounded LLM architectures can serve as a viable foundation for scalable and safe psychological support systems.

Abstract: Although Homo sapiens remains the only species with clearly documented religious systems, archaeological evidence suggests that other archaic humans may have exhibited behaviors associated with proto-religious thought, including symbolic practices and possible mortuary rituals. In particular, Homo neanderthalensis and the population known as Denisovans possessed large and complex brains, including well-developed frontal regions associated with social cognition and symbolic processing. This article explores the possibility that these archaic humans possessed early conceptualizations of death and mortality that could represent precursors to later religious ideas. By examining archaeological evidence, genetic research on archaic introgression, and theories from evolutionary anthropology and cognitive science of religion, the study investigates how interactions between archaic humans and modern humans may have contributed to the cognitive and cultural foundations of religious thought. Particular attention is given to the potential influence of archaic genetic heritage on cognitive traits related to agency detection, social cohesion, and attitudes toward death. The article also discusses whether such evolutionary and cognitive influences may have indirectly shaped later religious traditions in different cultural contexts, including both Western and Eastern religious systems. While direct causal connections remain difficult to establish, this study aims to provide an interdisciplinary framework for understanding how archaic human populations may have contributed to the deep evolutionary roots of human religiosity.

Abstract: Behavioural ecotoxicology is a field of applied ecotoxicology, where researchers consider the alterations in the behavioural markers due to the impact of environmental toxicants or contaminants. In fact, understanding the changes in behavioural manifestations helps to understand the respective underlying neurological mechanisms in the organisms and therefore, it effectively helps to describe or predict the neuro-behavioural context of behavioural modifications due to exposure to anthropogenic pollutants. Through this review we are addressing how environmentally available chemicals (such as pesticides, heavy metals (or metalloids), plastics and also pharmaceuticals can have significant acute and/or long-term impact on the behavioural profile of organisms (bioindicator species).

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Motor competence is a multidimensional indicator of developmental health, yet most studies treat it as a single composite outcome and ignore the contextual class-level structure of school-based data. This cross-sectional study examined motor competence across three domains, manual dexterity, aiming-catching, and balance, in 312 Greek primary school children aged 6–12 years (156 girls) using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children–Second Edition (MABC-2). Methods: Standard scores were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model with correlated domain-specific random slopes at both the class and student levels, partitioning inter-individual variability in overall motor level, intra-individual variability in domain profiles, and contextual class-level contributions. Post-hoc power analysis via parametric bootstrap confirmed adequate power for the primary outcome and indicated that non-significant age and sex main effects were negligibly small rather than undetected. Results: Balance yielded the highest standard scores, followed by aiming-catching and manual dexterity, with all three domains differing significantly. Neither age nor sex produced significant main effects. A significant component × sex interaction revealed domain-specific sex differences: boys outperformed girls on aiming-catching, while balance exceeded aiming-catching among girls but not boys. However, the observed interaction effect fell below the minimum detectable effect size threshold, suggesting potential upward bias and warranting cautious interpretation pending replication in larger samples. Approximately 13% of children were classified as at risk and 9% showed scores consistent with severe coordination difficulties. Contextual class-level sources accounted for 23.4% of total variance, with 52% of classes deviating significantly from the population mean. Conclusions: These findings highlight manual dexterity as a curricular priority in Greek primary physical education and underscore the importance of contextually sensitive, domain-specific approaches to motor competence monitoring and intervention.

Abstract: Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the leading cause of dementia worldwide. Its hallmarks are extracellular amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau forming neurofibrillary tangles, leading to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal loss. Despite extensive research, the mechanisms driving these proteinopathies and the contribution of genetic, molecular, and environmental factors remain unclear. Objective: This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying AD and the factors influencing its onset and progression. Methods: A narrative review of peer-reviewed studies from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted. Relevant articles on neuropathology, molecular pathways, genetic susceptibility, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and metabolic and lifestyle risk factors were analyzed. Results: AD is marked by Aβ accumulation and tau pathology, causing synaptic and neuronal loss. Key mechanisms include abnormal amyloid precursor protein processing, tau hyperphosphorylation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and calcium dysregulation. Genetic variants (APP, PSEN1, PSEN2, APOE ε4) increase risk, while aging, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and lifestyle factors further influence disease onset and progression. Conclusion: AD arises from complex interactions among molecular and environmental factors. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing preventive strategies and effective therapies, with personalized approaches offering future promise.

Abstract: Background: Criminal behaviour has been modelled through sociological, psychological, and biological lenses, yet mechanistic integration across subjective experience, neural processes, and social niche remains limited. Existing frameworks identify risk factors and correlates but rarely specify the computational mechanism through which adverse environments produce criminal inference. Framework: Active Inference (Free Energy Principle) provides a unified computational architecture in which perception, action, and learning are driven by the minimisation of variational free energy under precision-weighted prediction errors. We apply this framework to criminal behaviour, proposing that crime arises from systematic dysregulation of precision weighting within hierarchical generative models, shaped by the interaction between neural architecture and social niche. Model: We specify three distinct pathomechanisms: (1) niche-induced prior rigidity, mapping onto life-course-persistent delinquency; (2) vertical hierarchy collapse, mapping onto crimes of passion; and (3) failed inference repair, explaining recidivism as a systemic prediction of the model. Differential pathways: The model is transdiagnostic: the same upstream precision-weighting dysregulation can produce criminal behaviour, depression, anxiety, or somatic conditions depending on specific niche configuration, policy-precision parameters, and available action models. We formally specify the conditions under which the externalising (criminal) pathway dominates and argue, from a medical perspective, that this pathway warrants particular attention because it is therapeutically underserved, generates additional self-harm through moral injury, and is addressed by a justice system that systematically reinforces the underlying pathology. Predictions: Three falsifiable predictions are derived, each targeting a different pathway: (1) shifted dopaminergic value-learning in juvenile offenders, (2) PFC–amygdala decoupling in crimes of passion, and (3) superiority of inference-based rehabilitation over standard reintegration programmes. The proposed Inference Repair Programme (IRP) targets the generative model itself—not merely behavioural policies—and therefore aims at restoration of inferential flexibility rather than re-normalisation. Epistemic status: The Free Energy Principle as a mathematical principle is unfalsifiable, analogous to Hamilton’s principle of least action. Active Inference as a process theory is falsifiable. Empirical validation to date is in a stage of productive exploration: models explain behavioural data reasonably well but have been applied predominantly post hoc (Hodson et al., 2024). The present predictions offer an opportunity to test Active Inference in a novel domain with genuinely novel predictions.

Abstract: NSSI is often framed as emotion regulation, self-punishment, or interpersonal influence, yet these accounts under-specify how mobilization becomes urgent affect, why NSSI wins moment-to-moment behavioral competition, and how attachment constraint shapes whether anger-linked action readiness is routed outward or inward. The Arousal Appraisal Model (AAM) treats emotion as one regime within a broader control problem: calibrating physiological mobilization to state-dependent deployable capacity for coherent expression and integrative processing. The Survival Architecture of Coping (SArC) frames severe self-harm risk as system states that emerge when activation (urgency/action-readiness) rises as deployable coping capacity declines across biological, cognitive, relational, and meaning domains. Integrating AAM and SArC, this paper conceptualizes NSSI as a learned, high-control state-transition policy that becomes increasingly selectable when mobilization/activation rises under high constraint appraisal and low deployable capacity. Developmentally, a common pathway is proposed in which anger-linked mobilization is routed inward when outward expression is appraised as unsafe, forbidden, futile, or relationally catastrophic; punitive self-appraisals may then function as a permission/coherence scaffold that authorizes injury while preserving attachment and immediate safety. The model yields falsifiable predictions for intensive longitudinal research and clinical implications emphasizing capacity restoration, constraint repair, legitimization of anger as signal (not aggression), and expansion of safe throughput pathways.

Abstract: Purpose: Chronotyping is a key methodology for assessing individual differences in human adaptation to 24-h periodicity of geophysical and social environments. Throughout the 50-yr period of publications on chronotype questionnaires, there has been steady growth in number and diversity. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly difficult to determine which questionnaires can be optimally applied to address a given question in sleep and biological rhythm research. Consequently, this study aimed to develop a structured system for classifying and comparing chronotype questionnaires.Methods: The PubMed bibliographic database and 9 previously published reviews were searched for publications on chronotype questionnaires and/or their implementation in chronobiological and sleep studies.Results: A total of 75 questionnaires were identified, of which 60 and 15 were designed for only chronotype and chronotype and something else assessment, respectively. The proposed set of 20 questionnaire and questionnaire scale properties allows the distinction of any of the 60 questionnaires from the 59 other questionnaires.Conclusion: The structured system of questionnaire classification (“questionnaire identifier”) was proposed to help in navigating between numerous published questionnaires for choosing an optimal instrument for self-assessment of individual differences in a study of sleep and biological rhythms and for predicting properties of yet-unconstructed questionnaires.