Abstract: Chronotyping is a key methodology for assessment of individual differences in human adaptation to the 24-h periodicity of geophysical and social environment. Throughout the 50-yr period of scientific publications of chronotype questionnaires, they are steadily growing in number and diversity. Therefore, it is getting harder and harder to determine which of these questionnaires can be optimally applied to address a given question of sleep and biological rhythm research. Comparison of chronotype questionnaires can be facilitated using a structured system for their classification based on their properties. The PubMed bibliographic database and 9 previously published reviews were searched for publications of chronotype questionnaires and/or their implementation in chronobiological and sleep studies. In total, 75 questionnaires were identified, 60 and 15 of them were designed to only chronotype and chronotype and something else assessment, respectively. The structured system of questionnaire classification (“questionnaire identifier”) was proposed to help in navigating between numerous published questionnaires for choosing an optimal instrument for self-assessment of individual differences in a study of sleep and biological rhythms and for predicting properties of yet-unconstructed questionnaires. Particularly, a proposed set of 20 questionnaire and questionnaire scale properties allows the distinguishing of any of 60 questionnaires from 59 other such questionnaires.

Abstract: Aeropalynology the monitoring and interpretation of airborne pollen has become increasingly relevant in Latin America as allergic rhinitis and asthma rise alongside rapid urbanization, land‑use change, and climate variability. Yet the region’s capacity remains heterogeneous: long‑standing traditions in the Southern Cone coexist with emerging programs in tropical and Andean settings, and many series are not translated into standardized products useful for clinical care or public health. We conducted a structured literature review guided by PRISMA 2020 to synthesize the historical evolution, current monitoring infrastructure, dominant pollen taxa, and translational outputs reported across Latin American countries. Evidence indicates that Mexico currently represents the most mature aeropalynological ecosystem in the region, supported by multi‑site monitoring, open weekly reporting (REMA), multiple city‑level pollen calendars, and emerging computational approaches for pollen identification. Across countries, recurrent high‑impact taxa include Cupressaceae/Juniperus, Fraxinus, Platanus, Olea, Poaceae, Urticaceae, Chenopodiaceae–Amaranthaceae, Rumex, Ambrosia, and Parietaria, with local dominance shaped by biogeography and urban vegetation. Key gaps include limited long‑term continuity outside a few cities, variable methodology (sampler type, taxonomic resolution, units, thresholds), and scarce linkage of pollen exposure metrics with clinical outcomes. Future priorities include harmonized volumetric monitoring, interoperable data standards, routine publication of pollen calendars and thresholds, integration with meteorology for forecasting, and expansion of digital decision‑support tools to improve prevention and management of allergic respiratory diseases in Latin America.

Abstract: Brief post-learning wakeful resting periods and local sleep mechanisms have been proposed to support offline memory consolidation processes. Mind-wandering (MW), thought to reflect the occurrence or need for local sleep, has been linked to momentary attentional disengagement and may index transitions toward offline processing states. We hypothesized that resting opportunities administered immediately after probe-caught MW episodes reflecting local sleep need may selectively enhance memory consolidation. In a first experiment, participants learned 5 blocks of 8 paired-associate words; a MW thought probe was administered after each block. In the MW condition, participants were allowed a 3-minute quiet, offline pause after the block if they reported MW. In the control condition, no pause was administered. Consolidation was better in the MW than the control condition, supporting the hypothesis. However, Experiment 2 tested the MW-related pause effect by comparing the MW condition to a condition in which pauses were allowed irrespective of MW. Results showed that performance equally improved in both conditions, suggesting that post-learning pause effects would not be MW-specific. However, additional analyses evidenced a positive relationship between MW intensity and memory consolidation in both experiments. Our findings suggest that transient interruption of input during a declarative learning session may favor memory consoli-dation at wake, partially independently of the attentional state.

Abstract:

High-performance athletes operate in demanding environments requiring simultaneous coordination of multiple cognitive and motor tasks. This study developed a novel dual-task protocol combining continuous visuomotor tracking with discrete attentional vigilance to investigate temporal dynamics of dual-task interference in young athletes. Thirty-six participants from interceptive and static sports performed the dual-task paradigm while behavioral performance metrics were continuously recorded. Adapting event-related potential methodology to behavioral data, we computed Event-Related Behavioral Potentials (ERBPs) to characterize time-locked performance changes. Results revealed a significant Dual-Task Effect (DTE) with distinct temporal components: an early perceptual interference phase around 450 ms post-stimulus and a later decision-execution phase extending to 1400 ms. Friedman tests confirmed significant performance differences across temporal windows (\( \chi^2 \)(4) = 85.32, p < 0.001), with performance returning to baseline by 1500 ms. The ERBP analysis enabled quantification of DTE amplitude, latency, and duration—providing novel metrics for continuous assessment of cognitive-motor interference. Target events elicited pronounced performance degradation compared to non-target events (peak difference: 10.5 px, latency difference: 350 ms), indicating sensitivity to decision-making processes beyond motor execution. Exploratory comparisons between sport groups revealed trends suggesting differential interference patterns, though no significant between-group differences emerged. These findings demonstrate that ERBP analysis offers a powerful framework for dissecting temporal dynamics of dual-task performance, with implications for understanding attentional resource allocation in high-demand environments and potential applications in sports training and cognitive assessment.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Childhood obesity remains a major public health issue, particularly in Mediterranean countries such as Greece. Although parental influences on children’s weight have been extensively studied, fewer studies have jointly examined parental mental health, feeding practices, sociodemographic factors and biological stress markers. This study aimed to investigate associations between psychological status, educational level, feeding behaviors and children’s Body Mass Index (BMI) in a Greek sample. A pilot assessment of salivary cortisol was included in evaluating its feasibility as an objective biomarker of parental stress. Subjects and Methods: A total of 103 parent-child dyads participated in this cross-sectional study. Children’s BMI was classified using World Health Organization (WHO) Growth Standards. Parental stress, anxiety and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale-14 (PSS-14) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) questionnaires. Feeding practices were evaluated with the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ). Statistical analyses included Pearson correlations, independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests. A subsample provided saliva samples for cortisol analysis to assess feasibility and explore potential associations with parental stress indicators. Results: Parental BMI showed a strong positive association with child BMI (p = 0.002). Higher parental anxiety (p = 0.002) and depression (p = 0.009) were also associated with increased child BMI. Restrictive (p < 0.001) and emotion-driven (p < 0.001) feeding practices were associated to higher child BMI, whereas monitoring (p = 0.013) and health-promoting feeding practices (p = 0.001) appeared protective. Lower parental education was related to higher BMI in both parents (p = 0.001) and children (p = 0.002) and to more frequent use of restrictive feeding strategies (p = 0.001). WHO charts identified a greater proportion of children as overweight or obese compared with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria. The analysis showed statistically significant differences between the two classification systems (χ² (4) = 159.704, p < 0.001), indicating that BMI categorization varies considerably depending on the reference system used. No significant associations were observed with residential environment or salivary cortisol, likely due to the limited size of the pilot biomarker subsample. Conclusions: The findings highlight the combined effect of parental mental health status, educational level and feeding practices on child BMI within the Greek context. The preliminary inclusion of a biological stress marker provides added value to existing research in this area. These results underscore the importance of prevention strategies that promote parental psychological wellbeing, and responsive feeding practices while addressing socioeconomic disparities to reduce childhood obesity risk.

Abstract: Erythropoietin (EPO), the master regulator of erythropoiesis, is emerging as a pivotal mediator of brain repair. While its capacity to mitigate neural damage is well-documented, we posit that its most profound potential lies in actively orchestrating functional restoration. In the present review we summarize the molecular biology of EPO and the evidence establishing EPO as a potent modulator of neuroplasticity. We use an experimental strategy in which a specific behavioral task marks experience-activated neural circuits, and a subsequent, temporally precise administration of EPO provides a surge of plasticity-related proteins. This creates a synergistic interaction where the proteins are selectively captured by the activated synapses, directing plastic changes with high specificity. We present experimental evidence demonstrating that this synchronized protocol enables the recovery of spatial memory, reinstates synaptic plasticity, and activates genetic programs for plasticity in rodent models of brain injury. Furthermore, we show that endogenous EPO signaling is itself activity-dependent and integral to memory formation. This redefines EPO as a precision tool for neurorestoration, a potential now being pursued with engineered, non-erythropoietic variants of EPO in clinical trials for neurological and psychiatric disorders

Abstract: The importance of micronutrient status on human food choice remains a fundamental issue needing further investigation. By definition, essential nutrients must be consumed in sufficient amounts to meet an individual’s requirements. While data indicate that complex neuroendocrine mechanisms provide negative-feedback control of energy and protein intake to support homeostasis, corresponding mechanisms controlling micronutrient intake are less well studied. In some contexts, they are explicitly assumed to be absent, specifically for models evaluating safety and risks of deficiencies. However, it may be hypothesized that for at least some micronutrients, mechanisms exist that aid attainment of requirements by altering preference for micronutrient-rich foods so as to increase ingestion of foods containing them, similar to how being thirsty increases the appeal of watermelon compared with dry food. If this hypothesis is correct, it may hold important implications for understanding the types and quantities of foods ingested. Greater appeal of foods richer in essential nutrients may reduce the risk of malnutrition. However, by extension, it may be posited that the use of supplements could confound the most healthful food choices. For example, obtaining vitamin C from supplements or fortified foods could then causally reduce the dietary intake of vegetables and fruits by reducing the appeal of these foods. The unintended consequence may be lower intake of fiber, nitrate and phytochemicals, food constituents that may contribute to health without being essential nutrients themselves. This hypothesis can and should be tested empirically, for example through randomized placebo-controlled supplementation trials. If clear causal effects are documented, clinical and public health guidance will require critical evaluation and possible modification.

Abstract: The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went back to check the corresponding target word for spelling errors that had been added after reading. The regression target was located either close to or far from the probe. Eye movement measures included the size of initial regressions, regression error, number of regressions and time to reach the target. Assessments of spatial memory capacity and reading skill served to determine the use of spatial and linguistic knowledge. Responses were classified into five different visuomotor strategies: single shot regressions, goal directed regressions (with corrections), centered searches, forward searches, and backward searches. Consistent with prior work, initial regressions were larger for far than for near targets, and the finding of far targets required more eye movements and more search time. Spatial memory and reading skill made distinct contributions to regression targeting. Memory skills strongly determined primary regressions especially to near targets, whereas reading ability influenced the time needed to attain targets with subsequent saccades.

Abstract: Human sex recognition is a universal human ability, yet its biological and developmental basis remains incompletely characterized. Research on pheromonal signaling in animals has been essential for elucidating principles of sex recognition, social development, and multisensory integration across species, and has profoundly informed hypotheses about human behavior. However, in humans, no specific sex pheromone has been identified, and the anatomical and genetic substrates required for pheromonal communication—such as a functional vomeronasal organ and intact vomeronasal receptor gene families—are vestigial or absent. These observations suggest that additional or alternative mechanisms may play a central role in human sex recognition.This manuscript proposes the Human Sex Recognition (HSR) model, a developmental framework in which the human voice functions as the earliest and most reliable biological cue to sex. Drawing on converging observations reported across the scientific literature, the model integrates evidence that infants exhibit early sensitivity to vocal signals; that children form stable auditory–visual associations linking voices with sexed visual features; and that pubertal hypothalamic changes confer motivational and emotional significance on these learned associations. The manuscript is organized in two parts. Part I presents the formulation and developmental foundations of the HSR model. Part II evaluates empirical, biological, and comparative evidence bearing on human sex recognition and examines how the HSR framework complements existing pheromone-based sex recognition (HPSR) accounts.Although no new dataset is introduced, the synthesis of human developmental, perceptual, and neurobiological research indicates that HSR is supported by extensive real-life exposure, large effect sizes, and biologically plausible learning mechanisms. The HSR model incorporates mechanisms well established by pheromonal research while proposing additional developmental processes in domains where pheromonal explanations appear insufficient, thereby generating testable predictions for future experimental and developmental studies.

Abstract: This paper introduces the Proximal Chemical Mandate Principle, a unified theoretical framework asserting that all motivated behavior in organisms with neurochemical systems is driven by two invariant, instantaneous optimization processes: Reward Signal Maximization (R↑) and Stress Signal Minimization (S↓). The mandates operate through a deterministic, expanded hierarchical causal chain, including variables like the Completion Approach Rate (cAr), linking sensory input (I-s) to ultimate, environmentally contingent outcomes (Uo). The framework defines three environmental domains—Natural Selection Field (NSF), Natural Culturophiliart Field (NC★F), and Natural Counterproductive Field (NCF)—to explain why identical neurochemical optimization processes yield adaptive, meaning-seeking, or maladaptive outcomes. This contingency is formalized by the Sophistication–Velocity Principle, which models how the efficiency of mandate implementation (Š) interacts with predictive fitness consequences stress (fĈs) to determine behavioral trajectories. The principle is further supported by the Stimulus's Fitness Principle, which quantifies individual variation in fitness outcomes based on the unique balance between neurochemical response and health consequences. The theory integrates extensive empirical evidence, including high-temporal-resolution studies of dopamine dynamics and the Readiness Potential (RP), validating the principle of instantaneous mandate execution (Mandoinstafill). It provides a deterministic interpretation of consciousness as a state reflection of ongoing optimization, and resolves key evolutionary and behavioral paradoxes by explaining them as sophisticated implementations of the mandates under specific environmental and neurochemical conditions: Addiction (hijacked R↑), Altruism/Emergency Response (immediate S↓ priority), Voluntary Childlessness (favorable R↑/S↓ balance in modern contexts), Suicide (extreme S↓ fulfillment), Hard Work/Delayed Gratification (PFC modeling of long-term R↑), Hyper-Palatable Foods (supernormal R↑ exploitation), and Music/Evolutionary Acoustics (sophisticated implementation exploiting evolved OsC for R↑). The framework ultimately suggests that complex human capacities serve as tools for sophisticated mandate fulfillment, with applications in personalized behavioral optimization, mental health, and the ethical alignment of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI).

Abstract:

Background: The search for meaning (Logos) is widely recognized as a primary determinant of resilience. However, current psychological models often fail to account for the metabolic cost of maintaining coherent narratives in high-entropy environments. Objective: This article introduces the Neuro-Existential Architecture System (NEAS), a unified framework synthesizing Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy with the Free Energy Principle and Spatiotemporal Neuroscience. We aim to demonstrate how the "Spiritual Self-Pattern" functions not as a metaphysical add-on, but as a thermodynamic necessity for optimizing the brain's predictive dynamics. Methods: Integrating the Resonance-Inference Model (RIM) with theories of Affective Criticality (Tucker & Luu) and Population Clocks (Buonomano), we distinguish between two hierarchical modes of regulation: a semantic Master Prior (Logos) that operates via belief updating, and a structural Master Prior (Spirit) that operates via precision control. We operationalize the spiritual dimension using Michael von Brück’s definition: "consciousness becoming aware of itself."(Brück, personal communication). Results: We identify that while Logos provides the vector of resilience (direction), it remains metabolically expensive and falsifiable. The structural integration of Spirit (awareness of awareness) shifts the system into a state of "Affective Criticality," optimizing information processing and minimizing allostatic load. This integration prevents pathological states defined as "Frozen Priors" (fanaticism) or "Decoupled Narratives" (depression). Conclusions: Meaning is a bio-energetic imperative. The NEAS provides a mechanistic grammar for understanding spiritual practices as "technologies of enactment" that train the brain to maintain viability at the edge of chaos.

Abstract: We argue that if “exercise snacks” are truly beneficial, current physical activity questionnaires need to be reconsidered. Questionnaires remain the most widely used tools for assessing physical activity in large-scale epidemiological studies because they are inexpensive, feasible, and easy to administer. However, many widely used instruments, such as the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire, only record activities that last at least 10 consecutive minutes, and some tools apply even higher bout-duration thresholds. These conventions were consistent with earlier physical activity guidelines and simplified recall for respondents, but they are increasingly misaligned with contemporary evidence and lifestyles. Recent guidelines from the World Health Organization and the United States have removed the requirement that activity be accumulated in bouts of ≥10 minutes. At the same time, emerging experimental and epidemiological research indicates that very brief, fragmented bouts of activity—sometimes lasting only seconds to a few minutes—can meaningfully improve cardiometabolic markers, interrupt sedentary time, and are associated with lower mortality risk. This commentary highlights the risk that traditional questionnaires systematically undercount these “exercise snacks” and thereby underestimate both true activity levels and the health potential of fragmented, high-intensity or lifestyle-embedded movements. We propose that existing questionnaires be reevaluated and potentially revised to remove or lower bout-duration thresholds, and that new tools be developed specifically to capture fragmented activity patterns (e.g., through diaries or brief-event recording). Future validation studies should explicitly test how these revised measures relate to health outcomes, thereby clarifying the role of fragmented physical activity in public health surveillance and guideline development.

Abstract: Burnout is well-researched. That no scoping reviews exist on the relationship between burnout and nutrition to determine the range and depth of peer-reviewed studies on burnout, nutrition, nutrition literacy, or food literacy is unexpected. The selection was to conduct a scoping review of the past six years, as the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020-2023 may have significantly affected burnout and nutrition. The search undertaken involved the keywords “burnout AND nutrition AND (nutrition literacy OR food literacy)” of five primary databases (CINAHL Plus, OVID, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science) and one supplementary database (Google Scholar). Included are all peer-reviewed studies on burnout, nutrition, nutrition literacy, or food literacy in English published between 2020 and 2025. A 3 June 2025 search of the databases produced the included records. They are from two of the six—OVID (n = 1) and Google Scholar (n = 7). Thus, returns from several peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2025 are evident from a search of five primary databases and one supplementary database. The finding is that COVID-19 affected the results in various ways. Research initially focusing on burnout, when considering the relationship between burnout and nutrition regarding nutrition literacy or food literacy, may be most productive.

Abstract:

Coffee is the most popular non-alcoholic beverage in the world, and its consumption has increased over the last decades. Recent studies have identified the social and environmental factors that determine whether an individual is a coffee drinker or non-drinker. Knowing the key aroma compounds of coffee and identifying inter-individual differences in the number and type of odor-active compounds could be important to understand what guides consumers towards the choice of drinking or not drinking coffee. In this study, using the coupled Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry technique, the components of the headspace of roasted coffee beans were separated and evaluated by volunteers. Each participant had to identify and provide a personal evaluation of the pleasantness and intensity perceived for each odor molecule. The results show that individuals with normosmia perceive single molecules with a greater intensity than those with hyposmia, and that females report perceiving the odor of single molecules with a higher intensity than males. The reported pleasantness for the coffee aroma is determined by the hedonic valence attributed to each molecule in terms of pleasantness/unpleasantness. These results could be of great interest to the coffee industry, providing useful information for the development of new blends.

Abstract: Chronic stress alters hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function, influencing corticosterone regulation and adaptive responses. Identifying distinct response patterns can provide insight into individual variability in stress adaptation. This study is aimed to assess variability in HPA axis sensitivity following chronic social defeat stress. Male C57BL6 mice were exposed to chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) for 30 days. In order to evaluate integrity of negative feedback loop of HPA axis dexamethasone suppression test (DST) was used. Corticosterone levels were measured following saline or low-dose dexamethasone administration at 10 and 30 days. K-means clustering by corticosterone levels after saline and dexamethasone administration was applied to identify distinct response profiles. Behavioral testing (open field, elevated plus maze, social interaction test, partition, social defeat, forced swimming test, sucrose preference test) and qPCR analysis of HPA axis-related genes in hypothalamus (Crh, Crhr1, Crhbp, Fkbp5, Nr3c1), pituitary gland (Pomc, Crhr1, Nr3c1, Nr3c2), and corticosterone synthesis genes in adrenal glands (Cyp11a1, Cyp11b1, Hsd11b1, Mc2r, Star, Fkbp5, Nr3c1) was performed. Cluster analysis identified 3 distinct response profiles differing in baseline and dexamethasone-suppressed corticosterone levels. Clusters also exhibited differences in behavioral phenotypes and HPA axis gene expression. Cluster 1 showed low basal corticosterone and an abnormal dexamethasone suppression response, without significant Crh or Crhbp dysregulation in the hypothalamus. Cluster 2 exhibited elevated basal corticosterone, a blunted dexamethasone response, anhedonia, and reduced immobility in the forced swim test; increased Crh and reduced Fkbp5 suggest enhanced glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity and sustained hypercortisolemia. Cluster 3, characterized by normal basal corticosterone and normal dexamethasone response, showed upregulation of Crh and Crhbp, consistent with balanced and potentially adaptive HPA axis regulation under chronic stress. Corticosterone response heterogeneity reflects distinct adaptive trajectories under chronic stress. Identifying behavioral markers of these strategies may improve understanding of stress vulnerability and resilience mechanisms, with implications for stress-related disorders.

Abstract: The study of human population dynamics at a country level is a critical topic. Understanding population trends in a given country can be highly valuable for designing policies related to birth control, economy, urban planning, among others. In this work, we analyze data from eight countries whose population growth tends to follow a logistic pattern over time. In particular, we focus on the carrying capacity parameter, and observe how this value can change its interpretation. We define a socio-economic asymptotic value, and claim that this value plays the role of a socio-economic carrying capacity in some of the countries under study. Each country within this study present different socioeconomic conditions, densities and population size. However, the sigmoidal growth seems to be present in all of them. This work invites the community to think different about the traditional carrying capacity definition.

Abstract: Background: Low fruit and vegetable (FV) intake has been linked to depression, a growing public health concern. However, few studies have examined whether this relationship differs by urban and rural residence, despite geographic disparities in diet and mental health. This study investigates whether the association between FV intake and depression varies by area of residence among U.S. adults. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using 2021 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data, a nationally representative survey of adults aged ≥18 years (n = 156,256,279). FV intake was categorized as < 1 time/day or ≥1 time/day. Depression was based on self-reported diagnosis. Multivariable logistic regression estimated adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI), including interaction terms for FV intake and residence (urban vs. rural). Results: Low FV intake was associated with higher odds of depression (fruit: OR = 1.17; vegetables: OR = 1.10). Significant interactions by residence were observed. Low fruit intake was linked to depression in both urban (OR = 1.15) and rural (OR = 1.21) areas. Low vegetable intake was significant only in urban residents (OR = 1.10). Conclusions: Low FV intake is associated with higher odds of depression disorder, with differences by geographic context. Higher fruit intake was protective across areas, while vegetable intake was only associated with depression in urban residents. Public health strategies should prioritize interventions that reflect the unique characteristics of each community to address both dietary behaviors and the broader structural factors influencing mental health.

Abstract: Dogs can detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with infectious diseases, but their ability to distinguish between symptomatic and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections has not been fully established. In this study, eight naïve dogs began training with either symptomatic or asymptomatic Delta samples; seven reached the testing phase and were then evaluated on the alternate group to assess cross-generalization. Training initially used a yes/no protocol but was adapted to a line-up design after poor performance. When presented with novel Delta samples, dogs significantly discriminated them from controls, achieving a mean sensitivity of 71% and specificity of 51%, with no difference between training groups. In contrast, performance dropped when dogs were tested with asymptomatic Omicron samples from vaccinated individuals, with a mean sensitivity of 55%. These results show that dogs can generalize across symptomatic and asymptomatic COVID-19 cases for the Delta variant but fail to detect Omicron reliably, likely due to altered VOC profiles in vaccinated individuals. While proof-of-concept feasibility was demonstrated with a line up protocol for detecting asymptomatic scent, detection dogs should not currently be recommended for large-scale screening, but findings underscore the need for standardized protocols and variant-specific retraining.

Abstract: There are many studies showing an association between fitness and/or sporting skill and better cognitive performance than is seen for unfit/unskilled individuals. One mechanism proposed for these effects is increased neural plasticity, meaning better cognitive performance could be the result of a more trainable brain. Here, we investigated performance on a visual search task to see if there was a training benefit associated with fitness or sporting skill and to supplement previous findings for a motor learning task which showed better initial performance in sporting individuals but no learning-related differences. No significant benefit was associated with fitness or sporting skill either for task performance or task learning. The only significant difference was likely indicative of reduced non-specific learning in two of the three sport/exercise groups, possible due to prior improvement in these skills as a result of fitness or sporting skill. The findings suggest a need for specificity in selecting use of training when aiming to produce cognitive benefits. This would also benefit from better assessment of sport-specific and sport/fitness general effects on cognitive performance.

Abstract: The circadian clock enables organisms to anticipate daily recurring events and syn-chronize their internal rhythms with environmental cues, such as light, aligning with the day/night cycle. Central to the molecular mechanisms of the circadian clock and light sensing are the Period (Per) 1 and 2 genes. While the roles of Per2 in astrocytes and neurons have been characterized, the specific contributions of Per1 remain less understood. Pre-vious research has shown that Per2 in neurons, but not astrocytes, influences phase shifts, whereas the regulation of circadian period involves Per2 in both cell types. In this study, we investigated the role of Per1 in neurons and astrocytes in modulating circadian period and phase shifts. Using an Aschoff Type I protocol (constant darkness) combined with 15-minute light pulses at circadian times (CT) 10, 14, and 22, we found that the absence of Per1 in neurons—but not in astrocytes—significantly affected both the circadian period and phase advance shifts in response to light at CT22.