Arts and Humanities

Abstract: In August 2017 the Parco Archeologico e Paesaggistico della Valle dei Templi (Agrigento, Sicily) and Duke University began a programme of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) mapping across the heart of ancient Akragas, pairing a senseFly eBee Plus fixed-wing platform with RGB, near-infrared, and red-edge sensors under RTK positioning. The project produced centimetre-resolution orthomosaics, digital surface models (DSMs), vegetation-index layers and photogrammetric 3D models covering roughly two square kilometres of the intramural landscape, together with a dedicated block over the San Nicola sector, where the theater of Akragas had been confirmed by geophysics and excavation only the year before. This article presents the survey architecture, the data products and a first analytical reading of the results against the current state of Akragantine urban archaeology. A 5 cm full-site DSM renders the terraced urban plateau, the excavated insulae of the Hellenistic-Roman quarter and a fabric of candidate buried features as measurable micro-relief; near-infrared and red-edge mosaics, flown at the height of the summer drought, record the vegetation-stress patterning through which the unexcavated city writes itself into the modern surface; and a fully georeferenced 3D map links temples, agora, theater and landscape into a single analytical frame. Read alongside the revived excavation programs in the central public area - which have shown that even the city's grid plan requires re-verification on the ground - the survey demonstrates the role of fixed-wing multispectral photogrammetry at large classical sites: not an illustration of what is known, but an instrument for deciding where to look next.

Abstract: Pubertal development is increasingly being investigated in bioarchaeology but estimating specific maturational events such as menarche remains challenging. This study addresses two related objectives: the first is developing an osteological method for estimating individual-level menarcheal status, and the second is adapting the status quo approach to estimate population-level median age at menarche. Three-dimensional cone-beam (3D-CBCT) data from 175 females aged 8–16 years with documented menarcheal status were used to model the relationship between spheno-occipital synchondrosis (SOS) fusion and the probability of being post-menarcheal. A modified 3-stage fusion SOS scheme, designed for dry bone application, achieved 84.0% overall classification accuracy, with 75.6% specificity and 86.6% sensitivity. The probability of being post-menarcheal increased from 0.367 for an unfused SOS to 0.914 once fusion was externally visible. The method was subsequently applied to the Lisbon documented skeletal collection, and SOS-estimated menarcheal status was combined with documented or estimated age and sex using logistic regression to estimate median age at menarche. Across six analytical combinations, estimated medians ranged from 13.8 to 14.4 years. Using documented age and sex produced a median of 13.8 years, closely corresponding to independent historical evidence of approximately 14 years for Lisbon females of comparable chronology. These findings indicate that SOS fusion provides a probabilistic indicator of individual menarcheal status and that individual classifications can be aggregated using the status quo approach to reconstruct population-level menarcheal timing. Further testing in independent populations is required to establish the broader applicability of both components of the approach.

Abstract: An interdisciplinary environmental baseline assessment was conducted on the submerged Roman remains of the Villa dei Pisoni, located within the Underwater Archaeological Park of Baiae (Poz-zuoli Bay, southern Italy), to characterize the physical and geochemical conditions that may influence the site’s long-term preservation. High-resolution morpho-bathymetric data were integrated with sedimentological and geochemical analyses performed at seven environmental stations surrounding the submerged villa. Sediments are predominantly composed of poorly sorted gravelly sand, indi-cating a shallow, wave-influenced depositional environment where sediment remobilization may contribute to mechanical abrasion of exposed archaeological surfaces. Organic geochemical analyses reveal a pronounced spatial heterogeneity in PAHs, with a maximum concentration of 3904 μg/kg at ENV_3, largely dominated by high-molecular-weight compounds. Diagnostic PAH ratios indicate a predominantly pyrogenic signature, suggesting a localized anthropogenic influence potentially re-lated to maritime activities and the proximity of the site’s mooring area, although a direct fuel-spill contribution cannot be demonstrated. Inorganic geochemical analyses identify a regional enrichment in As, consistent with the geochemical influence of the active Phlegraean hydrothermal system, to-gether with a distinct Cr–Ni–Rb anomaly at ENV_5, which is more consistent with local lithological and/or mineralogical controls. The results demonstrate that the environmental pressures affecting the site are inherently spatially heterogeneous and highlight the value of a holistic framework inte-grating sedimentological, geochemical, and high-resolution spatial data for the establishment of a comprehensive environmental baseline and the effective management of long-term preservation strategies.

Abstract: We describe and test a complete construction design for the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Each course is finished, casing included, before the next. Thirty-five tiers (mastabas) of dry-laid block stand against the four faces, their heights generally following the quarry beds. Two back-and-forth ramps at 1:8 climb the east and south faces. The east ramp is 11 m wide to the King's Chamber floor and 9 m to 65.9 m, for the granite beams, and carries two lanes of sledges below 65.9 m. Two short rubble ramps on the north and west faces serve the lowest courses. The men come down a ramp on the west face and the empty sledges, tethered in threes, down a timber chute. After the pyramidion is set, the tiers are taken down from the top while the face is dressed, and their blocks are reused.We assume the stone is waiting at the foot of the ramps and simulate the construction itself, course by course: the haul up the ramps, the haul across the course, the setting of core and casing, the setting out of each course and the granite beams. A minute-by-minute route model, which reproduces the result of our first paper, feeds a course model built on Petrie's course table. For each unmeasured value we give an expected case, our best reasoning, and a worst case. With every unmeasured value at its worst, the lift takes 22.1 years and the whole work 24.5, within the 27 years attested by the Diary of Merer. With expected values the ramps and the setting have a capacity of 12.0 years of lift; this theoretical figure gives a scale, not an estimate of the build. The tiers and ramps hold 268,800 m³ of block, 10.4 per cent of the pyramid. The work is about 47 million man-days whatever the pace, so the reign sets the size of the camp: about 5,800 men on average for a build of 27 years and 6,900 for 23 years. The result depends most on the time a turn and a loading take at the ramps.

Abstract: The rapidly expanding availability of palaeogenomic data provides new opportunities for archaeological chronology, yet genetic evidence is rarely incorporated independently within Bayesian chronological models. Here, we develop an approach for modelling cultural and genetic transitions separately, allowing their temporal relationship to be evaluated explicitly. We apply this framework to the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Denmark using 494 radiocarbon dates from 130 archaeological sites integrated with archaeological, isotopic and palaeogenomic evidence. Consistent with previous research, the preferred model places the rapid establishment of Neolithic cultural practices across Denmark around 4000 BC. The model further indicates that Mesolithic lifeways persisted for several generations, while European farmer ancestry appears 223-515 years after the introduction of Neolithic cultural practices in western Denmark and 324-474 years after in eastern Denmark (68.3% probability). Dietary patterns also differ significantly by genetic ancestry after accounting for chronology, while strontium isotope variation suggests possible differences in landscape use between hunter-gatherer and farming communities. The introduction of Neolithic practices, persistence of Mesolithic lifeways and population turnover therefore represent overlapping rather than synchronous processes. More broadly, the study demonstrates how palaeogenomic evidence can provide independent chronological information within Bayesian models, offering a transferable approach for disentangling cultural and population change by modelling these processes separately and evaluating their temporal relationship.

Abstract: The completed Giza plan supplies a stellar–solar clock model whose younger fitted state lies near 2562 BCE, within the published 95% radiocarbon-based accession range for Khufu (2629–2558 BCE). The 12,400-year stellar search has no dynastic-age constraint. Under primary Vondrák precession, historical channels alone select 2594 BCE within the 68% range. Dimensionless ground invariants define paired angular targets separated by 57,600 years; the primary fit gives 0.166° RMS. Cygnus–Deneb–Galactic centre leads 504,400 fixed-star assignments and eight 440-model constellation panels with stellar motion. With Cygnus retained, full-sphere searches locate the reference 4.46 arcmin from Sagittarius A*, or 1.11 arcmin with measured reference motion. Target permutations preserve a unique sub-0.5° assignment. Broad integer freedom admits rivals; fixing the continuous terrestrial inclination retains the candidate as best located. Near 60,162 BCE, Cassiopeia reconstructs 24–28–34 at 0.175° RMS under propagated stellar motion. At the younger state, the solstitial Sun reproduces the register with 0.0171 code-unit residual. Material recovery extends to five chambers, the Queen’s niche and the Sphinx; four additional chambers fail the inherited rules. These retrospective mappings support a testable hypothesis that Giza’s architecture and sculpture represent celestial time, with a state compatible with Khufu’s era; ancient intention remains unresolved.

Abstract: Almost every proposal about the Great Pyramid is a proposal about the lift. Straight ramps, spiral ramps, ramps folded onto the faces, levers, rockers, counterweights sliding down the Grand Gallery: the argument is always about how a block travelled the last hundred and forty metres. This paper asks a different question. If the whole chain from the quarry face to the setting crew is simulated as coupled state machines, with each stage given a fixed crew and the calendar left to emerge, which stage actually sets the pace? The instrument is a twin of the building process, not a survey model of the building. The answer is the quarry, and it is not close. In every configuration that finishes inside Khufu’s reign, the lift has spare capacity on roughly nine working days in ten: it could have raised more stone than the quarry delivered. Three consequences follow. First, the admissible builds are not a scatter of estimates but a single curve: quarrymen multiplied by extraction rate must equal 283 cubic metres of finished block a working day, and the Giza quarry’s own frontage truncates that curve at 0.047 cubic metres per man-day. Below that rate there is no face for the men to stand on. The one experimental rate in the literature, about 0.05 cubic metres of block per man-day from copper-tool trials at Wadi el-Jarf, sits on that floor. The floor rests on an estimate of the working frontage, 4,000 metres at 1.5 men to the metre, which is a construction of ours and the most fragile number here; the qualitative claim survives across a wide range of it, the precise figure does not. Second, because the lift has slack, the schedule cannot choose between lifting schemes. A multi-ramp, tongues of laid block, and a straight ramp stopped at twenty-five metres all reach the capstone within three months of one another, and a steeper ramp saves earthwork without saving a single day. The one exception is the speed of a lever station: above roughly thirty minutes a block a course, no number of lever crews finishes the pyramid, which rules out cribbing at Isler’s measured rate while leaving the rocker and the A-frame comfortably inside the reign. There is a deeper reason the calendar is powerless here. The gravitational work of assembling the pyramid is about 2.1 TJ, which is under two per cent of the labour the site actually fields, and about seven per cent once sledge friction is included. No lifting machine can save more than that, and a counterweight cannot save even that, because a pyramid is a one-way flow of mass upward and there is nothing to send down to reset it. Third, what does discriminate is not the calendar but the spoil. The schemes that agree on the schedule differ by five orders of magnitude in ramp fill, from nothing at all to 5.38 million cubic metres, and Lehner has already proposed the test: the debris now filling the Khufu quarry may be the dismantled ramps. Nobody has measured its volume. We set out what that measurement would settle. Simulation invites thinking and validation. It is not a proof in itself.

Abstract: This study explores the role of various environmental factors in the distribution of Paleolithic sites in France between 34 and 21 calibrated kiloanni before present. We compiled a database of occurrences of Gravettian, Solutrean and Badegoulian technocomplexes and then analysed the distribution of archaeological sites for these various cultural periods via Geographic Information System and statistical methods. These examinations took into account a number of different parameters, such as current land use, altitude, latitude, exposure, hydrology, geology and archaeological survey coverage. For all parameters considered, the analysis shows that the distribution of archaeological occurrences deviates significantly from random. Although the parameters related to climate (altitude, latitude, exposure) clearly indicate that it played an important role in settlement, the analysis also highlights positive or negative relationships between other factors and the distribution of archaeological sites, particularly locations of lithic raw material sources, sand deserts, and major rivers. These correlations can be explained either by a bias in the archaeological record or because these factors were favourable or, conversely, unfavourable to the settlement of Paleolithic groups. Ultimately, this study suggests that approaches based solely on the outputs of paleoclimatic simulations alone may not satisfactorily explain late Paleolithic settlement.

Abstract: The Heritage-Aligned Reconstruction Framework (HARF) was developed through the Western Buddha of Bamiyan to structure AI-mediated heritage reconstruction through evidentially constrained prompt design, prompt-sufficiency assessment and expert-in-the-loop evaluation. Its transferability beyond a figural-sculpture case has not been empirically examined. This article tests that question through a bounded cross-site evaluation of the Temple of Bel at Palmyra, substantially destroyed in 2015. The case is not treated as a second full reconstruction study, but as a test of whether HARF’s schema and evaluative logic can be instantiated for a monumental architectural site governed by different material, proportional and iconographic conventions. The Dynamic Prompt Blueprint was adapted by replacing Bamiyan-specific descriptors with Palmyra-specific architectural evidence, including limestone construction, fluted Corinthian columns, inscriptions, cella dimensions, pseudoperipteral colonnade, thalamoi and zodiac ceiling reliefs. A fourteen-item Palmyra block within the Phase I expert questionnaire was completed by 32 respondents. The findings show that HARF’s schema transfers without redesign, while dominant failure points shift towards architectural and decorative details, especially relief, surface, inscription and roofline form. HARF is therefore best understood as a diagnostic evaluation framework, not as a reconstruction engine.

Abstract: The Temple of Horus at Edfu, vast in scale and inscriptional density, has traditionally been studied as a corpus of texts isolated from its architectural and iconographic context. Addressing this divide, the article investigates whether digital methods, including machine learning (ML), can speed up the production of epigraphic facsimile drawings while linking Egyptology, historical building research, and the digital humanities, focusing on the Mesenit (room I) and the courtyard-Wabet ensemble (rooms P-Q). The Wabet was surveyed via Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry to build a Heritage Building Information Model (HBIM) within a Common Data Environment, while in the Mesenit, a pilot CycleGAN model was trained on 100 images from a larger photographic and drawing corpus to generate line drawings automatically, evaluated by cycle-consistency loss and Signal-to-Noise Ratio. Architectural analysis of courtyard P and room Q yielded dimensions and construction evidence, including wall chamfering and partition-wall sequencing relevant to the building’s construction phases. The CycleGAN pilot produced promising but preliminary results, with drawings (mean SNR 24.33 dB) reconstructing more reliably than photographs (20.15 dB). The study concludes that combining HBIM and ML-assisted image generation in a shared digital framework offers a feasible, developing interdisciplinary approach to documenting the temple, requiring further training and refinement before large-scale application.

Abstract: In the central Andes, the use of fire in non-domestic contexts is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition. Due to its sacred nature and transformative power, fire has been an important component of ritual performances, past and present, to cleanse and purify, to diseases, to communicate with powerful invisible agents, and above all, to protect the community. Archaeological evidence from the Acari Valley, on the south coast of Peru, demonstrates that fire was used continuously in ritual contexts from as early as the Initial Period up to the time of the Inka state. Throughout this long period of time, fire was used either to signal the beginning or to mark the culmination of rituals.

Abstract: This study employed the 5-meter Accuracy Digital Elevation Model (DEM) developed by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan to analyze the spatial distribution of Yayoi-period archaeological sites using a Geographic Information System (GIS)–based approach. Unlike conventional prefecture-level classifications, this method enables higher spatial precision and more intuitive visual interpretation. The analysis provides new insights into the long-standing debate over the location of Yamatai (Yamataikoku) approximately 1,800 years ago and significantly increases the likelihood that it was located in northern Kyushu. The results also reveal clear regional specialization within northern Kyushu. The areas around present-day Asakura City and Ogori City appear to have functioned primarily as military centers, whereas the Yoshinogari site—one of the largest Yayoi settlements in Japan—shows strong specialization in agriculture, especially large-scale wet-rice cultivation. The area corresponding to present-day Fukuoka City likely served as a major urban center combining both military and agricultural functions. In addition, the study suggests that “Jimmu’s Eastern Expedition” may preserve certain historical elements rather than being entirely mythical. By introducing GIS-based methods and the supplemental use of generative AI, this study represents both a pilot project and an attempt to advance the digital transformation (DX) of ancient historical studies in Japan.

Abstract: Single-coin finds are increasingly valued as a source for understanding patterns of human activity in the Early Middle Ages. This pilot study examines whether the chronological evenness of single coins can serve as a quantitative proxy for persistent human occupation and landscape stability. Six sites in the Netherlands (450–1200 CE) are compared: three located near relatively stable Pleistocene topographic features (Noardeast-Fryslân/Dokkum, Nijmegen, and Maastricht) and three in dynamic coastal or near-coastal Holocene landscapes (Waadhoeke/Franeker, Katwijk, and Veere/Domburg). All single finds were assigned to five standardised 150-year periods. Chronological evenness was measured using three complementary indices: standard deviation of percentage shares, Shannon entropy, and cosine similarity to a uniform distribution. Sites were classified as “balanced” when at least two metrics met predefined thresholds. The results demonstrate a clear distinction between the two groups. Assemblages from stable landscape positions show relatively balanced chronological profiles, while those from dynamic coastal zones exhibit strongly peaked distributions dominated by the 600–750 CE period (χ² = 347.00, df = 4, N = 1,702, p < 0.001, Cramér’s V = 0.452). Greater chronological evenness appears linked to proximity to stable geomorphological settings. These findings suggest that single-coin evenness can function as a useful proxy for long-term landscape persistence when combined with geo-archaeological evidence. Limitations include recovery biases and variable sample sizes. The study advocates the development of standardised, open-access single-coin datasets to facilitate broader comparative research.

Abstract: The article examines, on the basis of a comparative study, the place and scientific significance of Cyclopean structures located within the territory of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic in the context of Azerbaijani archaeology. The research focuses on the distribution area, chronology, and architectural features of these monuments in Nakhchivan. It has been determined that the fortress-type Cyclopean structures of Nakhchivan are monuments of great scientific and historical importance in Azerbaijani archaeology. These constructions reflect the formation and development of defensive architecture in the region and make it possible to study their chronology and evolutionary processes. The study demonstrates that these fortresses, built of large unworked stones without the use of mortar, reveal the military–strategic thinking of ancient tribes, their level of social organization, and the importance they attached to the protection of residential spaces. Their wide distribution across the territory of Nakhchivan proves that the region was located on important trade and migration routes and functioned as an active political and economic center. These monuments serve as invaluable sources for the study of early urbanization processes, cultural interactions, and stages of regional development within the territory of Azerbaijan. Keywords: Nakhchivan, Cyclopean structures, fortress, defensive fortification, architectural structure.

Abstract: While skeletal imagery appears across various ancient Andean traditions, the Wari Empire (c. 600–1000 CE) developed a uniquely standardized and widespread skull motif—the uma tullu—distributed throughout its former territory. Through an analysis of 63 artifacts spanning ceramic, textile, and metal media, this study identifies key diagnostic markers of the motif: the representation of the metopic suture and the application of red pigment. By cross-referencing these stylistic features with bioarchaeological data, the research posits that the uma tullu served as a central communicative device. In the absence of a formal script, this motif encoded imperial values and ancestral cult practices, facilitating ideological expansion and state identity. Ultimately, this work demonstrates how standardized iconography functioned as a system of graphic communication and ideological cohesion in the Middle Horizon Andes.

Abstract: Heritage Science generates vast quantities of heterogeneous data; however, the absence of a shared semantic framework frequently results in fragmented knowledge and compromised reproducibility. This paper introduces CRMhs, an ontology developed as a formal extension of the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM), designed to harmonise the documentation of scientific investigations within the cultural heritage domain. By defining specialised classes for scientific activities, study objects and analytical datasets, the model ensures a robust chain of provenance from initial physical sampling to final interpretative outcomes. The efficacy of CRMhs is demonstrated through its ability to successfully align diverse datasets, ranging from materials-based enquiries to environmental measurements, into a coherent and navigable knowledge graph. This approach not only facilitates seamless data interoperability but also establishes the essential semantic foundation for the advancement of Reactive Heritage Digital Twins. The model bridges the gap between raw scientific evidence and art-historical and archaeological interpretation, fostering a more integrated and sustainable approach to the preservation of cultural heritage.

Abstract: The study assesses the effectiveness of various stature estimation methods that utilise biases such as sex and race. Based on the literature gathered, the plausibility that stature estimation methods that use regression equations in their computation may just be a result of mathematical coincidence. In order to evaluate the need for group-biased methods, the research devised its own set of regression equations for the sampled population and compared it against region-biased, sex-biased, and height-categorisation approaches. The sample population was taken entirely from Delhi, India and the English dataset used by Mays (2016). The sampling included all long bone measurements of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fibula, along with the sex and ancestry of the participants. The findings revealed that the general regression model provided the lowest mean standard error estimate (SEE), initially suggesting that a non-biased approach to stature estimation may be more effective. However, upon analysis, it was found that the general model resulted in a fairly consistent overestimation of stature, although no particular trend of how this was occurring was noticeable. Along with this, the height-categorisation method, though mathematically very interesting, produced the highest mean SEE, indicating that the trends seen in stature estimation methods are not a result of mathematical coincidences. Looking at the group-specific models, a consistent performance was noticed in the statistical assessment and in the literature review. With a few caveats of certain bone measurements outperforming others, the group-specific models provide confirmation that the stature of any population has clear trends and can be quantified for estimation purposes. In the field of forensic anthropology, the complexity of accuracy, efficiency, and inclusivity is in constant discussion. Traditional race and sex biases being applied to modern contexts is challenging, especially with the rise of violence towards marginalised groups. Additionally, given the increase in cultural and genetic diversity of populations now, there needs to be immediate reconsideration of the terminology and sampling utilised in these long-standing methodologies. Future research should focus on developing more inclusive and adaptable stature estimation models.

Abstract: This study adopts an agricultural archaeology perspective, integrating excavated remains, artifact genealogies, and pictorial materials to conduct a systematic investigation into the origins, evolution, and cultural significance of traditional Chinese tea-making techniques.By examining tea plant genetic remains dating back 6,000 years, tea-processing tools from the Western Han to Tang-Song periods, Ming-Qing purple clay tea ware, and representative tea paintings from the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, this study analyzes the historical development of tea-making techniques, revealing their continuous evolution from the nascent stages of consumption to systematic development.The research demonstrates that archaeological evidence not only provides a solid foundation for chronological progression and technical analysis of traditional Chinese tea-making techniques and related customs, but also reflects the interactive relationship between technological innovation, the dissemination of tea customs, and social structures. Furthermore, archaeological material from Liao Dynasty tombs, Tibetan burial sites, and overseas shipwrecks indicates that tea customs exhibit remarkable cultural adaptability and influence in cross-regional exchanges and global dissemination.This paper argues that agricultural archaeology not only provides material evidence and methodological frameworks for studying traditional crafts but also offers new academic perspectives for understanding the diverse values of Chinese tea culture across temporal and spatial dimensions.

Abstract: According to its published mission, the European Collaborative Cloud for Cultural Heritage (ECCCH), a most recent flagship initiative of the European Commission, cur-rently being developed by the EU-funded project ECHOES, is “…a digital ecosystem designed to serve as a platform for cultural heritage professionals, researchers, and in-stitutions across Europe… to unify Europe’s fragmented cultural heritage sector through advanced digital collaboration…”. While recognizing that “…one of the most persistent challenges in the European cultural heritage sector is the dispersion of data in incom-patible formats and isolated institutional practices…”, the ECCCH advances “…a unified approach (that) will radically transform and greatly facilitate … collaborative research…”, promoting the engagement with small, peripheric Cultural Heritage (CH) institutions and providing (tangible and intangible) CH data under their custody. The article describes an experiment in assessing the readiness of available digital data on a specific type of CH objects, namely Cypriot Late Bronze Age figurines. Most of the ca. 170 figurines un-earthed were found in Cyprus, where they were also produced. Out of these, ca. a third are hosted in museums in Cyprus, and the others are dispersed in some 36 museums, primarily in the UK, museums across ten EU countries, the USA and the Russian Fed-eration. Less than half of them provide, through their digital, open-access collections catalogue, information on these figurines. The study reported here investigated the usefulness of this information for conducting synthetic research on their nature and the socio-cultural role they may have fulfilled while in use in the past. Consequently, the study explored the potential of the information provided by these museums to be inte-grated and expressed through the Heritage Digital Twin concept, at the core of the ECCCH.

Abstract: Cultural heritage sites in arid regions are often underestimated in terms of flood risk; however, the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events under climate change have significantly amplified threats to these fragile environments. Taking the Xixia Imperial Tombs in China as a case study, this research investigates strategies for flood hazard prevention and control for cultural heritage in arid areas. By situating the study within the broader context of climate change and global heritage conservation, the paper examines the impacts of flooding on heritage sites and the historical evolution of flood control measures. It further integrates an analysis of the site’s geographical characteristics, traditional flood management structures, and contemporary conservation practices. The study systematically elucidates the compound risks of “drought–desertification–sudden flooding” faced by cultural heritage in arid landscapes. The findings suggest that heritage protection should transition from reactive, post-disaster restoration to-ward proactive preventive conservation. This shift requires the integration of both engineering and non-engineering measures, supported by technology-based systems such as environmental monitoring and early warning platforms, to establish a comprehensive risk management framework. The research highlights that overcoming the prevailing misconception that “arid regions are free from flood risks,” embedding heritage flood management into regional planning, and ensuring legal, financial, and interdisciplinary cooperation are essential for the long-term safeguarding of cultural heritage in arid environments. This study offers practical insights and a transferable reference for the protection of heritage sites in similar climatic and geographical contexts worldwide.