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Advances in Archaeometric Research on Unearthed Jade Artifacts in China

Yi Bao  *

Submitted:

19 October 2025

Posted:

03 November 2025

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Abstract
This study reviews recent advances in the scientific and technological archaeology of ancient Chinese jade artifacts, focusing on material identification, alteration, provenance tracing. Using non-destructive analytical techniques such as portable XRF, SEM, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and LA-ICP-MS, archaeometric research has clarified the mineralogical diversity of jades and established systematic methods for differentiating nephrite and turquoise sources. Controlled heating and acid–base experiments have elucidated the mechanisms and color formation of alteration, providing key insights into post-depositional processes. Provenance studies integrating trace-element, rare-earth-element, and isotopic analyses have built multi-level hierarchical models for source discrimination. Micro-wear and experimental replication have reconstructed ancient jade-working technologies, while machine learning offers new perspectives for typology and cultural interpretation. Overall, these interdisciplinary approaches demonstrate that the integration of material science and archaeology is crucial for understanding the technological, cultural, and exchange networks that shaped Chinese jade culture from the Neolithic to the Qing period.
Keywords: 
ancient jade artifacts
;  
nephrite
;  
turquoise
;  
China
Subject: 
Arts and Humanities  -   Archaeology

Introduction

Throughout the development of Chinese civilization, artifacts made from a wide range of materials have appeared successively including stone, jade, pottery, porcelain, bronze, iron, glass, and textiles. As technology advanced, some materials emerged while others were gradually replaced or abandoned. However, jade artifacts have remained in continuous use up to the present day, occupying a significant place in ancient human activities.
The use of jade in ancient China was closely related to human society and cultural practices. Chronologically, jade artifacts have been used since the Neolithic period (ca. 9000 BC) [1], continuing through the Qing dynasty and even into modern times, reflecting an exceptionally long duration of use. Spatially, the use of jade had already spread widely during the Neolithic period, extending from the northeast to the south of China, from Tibet in the west to the coastal and insular regions in the east, and even beyond the present-day borders of China—demonstrating its broad geographical distribution. Functionally, jade artifacts served diverse purposes, including ritual jade artifacts, ornamental jades, funerary jades, and daily-use jades, reflecting their broad social roles and cultural importance.
The life history of ancient Chinese jade artifacts can be divided into five stages: the raw-material stage, manufacturing stage, usage stage, burial or transmission stage, and the archaeological research and conservation stage (Figure 1) [2]. In the first stage—the raw-material stage—jade raw material was obtained either through collection or mining, with early societies relying mainly on collection. In the second stage—the manufacturing stage—ancient craftspeople selected appropriate jade raw materials according to different purposes and design requirements. The jade artifacts were then shaped, carved, and polished through multiple processes, resulting in objects with specific decorative patterns and forms.The third stage—the usage stage—can be divided according to function into ornamental jades, ritual jade artifacts, funerary jades, and daily-use jades, with variations in function and meaning across historical periods.In the fourth stage, jade artifacts were either buried with their owners or passed down through generations. In some cases, tombs of earlier periods were reopened by later generations, and the buried jades were reused and reburied, demonstrating the cyclical nature of jade use and transmission.The fifth stage begins after archaeological excavation, when unearthed jade artifacts undergo research, documentation, and conservation. These studies not only reveal aspects of ancient human behavior and jade culture, but also contribute to the preservation and continuation of Chinese cultural heritage.
Corresponding to this life history, research on ancient Chinese jades can be categorized into seven main areas: provenance study of jade raw materials, material analysis, jade craftsmanship and manufacturing technology, archaeological typology study, jade culture research, conservation of ancient jades, and alteration studies (Figure 1). Among these, jade culture research, archaeological typology study, and material analysis have developed into mature and systematic research fields with well-established methodologies and extensive results, forming a comprehensive understanding of jade artifacts from different periods and regions. By contrast, alteration studies, technological craftsmanship studies, and provenance studies are still developing; their research systems are under construction, and their methodologies are becoming increasingly sophisticated. Over the past decade, significant progress has been achieved in the alteration, craftsmanship, and provenance studies of ancient jades. This paper provides a systematic review of recent advances in the material analysis, alteration, and provenance study of ancient Chinese jade artifacts.

Material Studies of Ancient Jades

Over the past two decades, one of the most significant achievements in the material study of ancient jade artifacts has been the use of archaeometric techniques to more accurately determine the mineralogical composition of ancient jades. These advances have expanded the known material spectrum of ancient Chinese jade artifacts to over forty types, encompassing four major categories: nephrite, other natural gemstones, organic gemstones, and synthetic gemstones (Table 1). Among these, nephrite indisputably occupies the dominant position throughout the long history of Chinese jade craftsmanship, serving as the principal material for ancient jade artifacts. The identification of multiple gem materials also provides strong evidence that extensive cultural and technological exchanges were already occurring in China as early as the Neolithic period.

Alteration Studies of Ancient Jades

The alteration (qin se) of ancient jade artifacts is one of the most distinctive and fascinating features of Chinese jade culture. Research on alteration represents a foundational component of all jade studies, influencing material, typological, and cultural analyses alike. Over the past ten years, significant breakthroughs have been made in the scientific study of jade alteration [3].
In archaeology and heritage science, the term qin refers to a series of physicochemical changes that jade undergoes as a result of human use and environmental exposure. The term shouqin (“subjected to alteration”) denotes the entire process of transformation, while alteration refers specifically to the color phenomena associated with alteration. Based on color, alteration can be divided into seven major types: white, black, green, yellow–brown, red, blue, and purple. Earlier studies sometimes referred to qin using geological terms such as weathering or secondary alteration [4,5,6]; however, these are conceptually distinct. In geology, secondary alteration refers to mineralogical changes occurring after formation, and weathering describes the mechanical and chemical decomposition of rocks near the Earth’s surface [7]. In contrast, Qin, as understood in archaeology, incorporates strong cultural and anthropogenic connotations. Therefore, the author advocates the continued use of the archaeological term qin to emphasize its unique cultural meaning.
The formation of alteration can be divided into two major types according to whether the jade artifact had entered a burial context. The first type occurs before burial, involving human-related processes such as handling, heating, or ritual exposure to fire. The second type occurs after burial, driven by the combined effects of the burial and natural environments. In many cases, both types act in combination. The formation of alteration thus involves the entire life history of a jade artifact—from mining and crafting to burial and excavation—and is deeply intertwined with human activity.
The distinction between pi (jade rind) and qin (alteration) should be noted (Figure 2). The jade rind refers to natural weathering or oxidation of the raw jade material prior to human use, whereas alteration arises from changes that occur after human interaction.
Similarly, jade color (Yu Se), rind color (Pi Se), and alteration color (Qin Se) must be clearly differentiated (Figure 2). Jade color is the inherent hue of the jade raw material; rind color develops through natural weathering prior to human modification; and alteration color results from post-use transformations caused by human and environmental factors. These three color phenomena may coexist on a single jade artifact.
The study of jade alteration can be divided into two main research approaches. The first focuses on the direct observation and analytical characterization of alteration colors and surface microstructures. The second relies on experimental simulations, including thermal experiments and acid–alkali immersion tests, to investigate the mechanisms of alteration formation. Research employing acid–alkali experiments remains limited, whereas in recent years, scholars have predominantly conducted thermal simulation experiments on jades of different mineralogical compositions to examine their thermal responses, clarify the mechanisms of heat-induced alteration, and establish diagnostic criteria for identifying thermally altered jades [8,9,10].
Integrating the results of both empirical and experimental studies, alteration colors can be categorized into seven major types (Figure 3): red, green, blue, purple, yellow–brown, white, and black. The color and distribution of alteration on unearthed jade artifacts are often complex—some display a single alteration color, while others show multiple colors simultaneously. Each color type may result from various mechanisms, and multiple causes may operate concurrently within a single artifact [1,11,12,13]. Based on mineralogical and contextual evidence, eight major formation factors have been identified: (1) thermal alteration, (2) natural weathering, (3) corrosion products of bronzes, (4) corrosion products of iron objects, (5) soil constituents, (6) textile fibers, (7) mercury, and (8) manganese (Mn) (Figure 4).

Provenance Study of Jade Raw Materials in Ancient Jades

The provenance study of jade raw materials is one of the most important and challenging aspects of research on unearthed jade artifacts. It represents a vast and long-term endeavor requiring the cumulative efforts of several generations of scholars. Current research on the provenance of ancient jade materials focuses primarily on two minerals: nephrite (tremolite-actinolite jade) and turquoise.

Provenance Study of Nephrite

The identification of nephrite provenance has become a major focus in both archaeometry and gemmology during the past decade. Known deposits of tremolite-actinolite jade include: Xinjiang (Hotan, Yutian, Qiemu), Liaoning (Xiuyan), Qinghai, Sichuan (Longxi and Shimian), Guizhou, Henan (Xichuan), Jiangsu (Liyang), Fujian (Nanping), Guangxi (Dahua), Taiwan (Hualien), as well as deposits in Korea (Chuncheon), Russia, Canada, Alaska (USA), New South Wales (Australia), and New Zealand. Comprehensive databases of jade deposits are being established across China and worldwide, and efforts are underway to develop robust and reproducible analytical methods for provenance identification of nephrite.
From a genetic perspective, nephrite deposits can be divided according to their host rock and iron content. Deposits formed within magnesium-rich metamorphic rocks (such as dolomitic marble or dolostone) with low iron content are classified as D-type nephrite. China hosts numerous D-type nephrite deposits [14], and most ancient Chinese jade artifacts were made from this type [15,16]. In contrast, nephrite formed in serpentinized ultrabasic rocks with higher iron content, known as S-type nephrite, is relatively rare in China, but occurs in Taiwan (Hualien) [17], Hotan–Yutian [18], Manasi [19,20], Qiemu (Xinjiang) [21], Qilian (Qinghai) [22,23], and Shimian (Sichuan) [24].
To date, several D-type ancient jade-mining sites have been discovered, including Mazongshan in Subei (Gansu) [25,26,27,28,29,30,31], Hanzhong (Shaanxi) [32], Linwu (Hunan) [33,34], Yudu (Jiangxi) [35], Nanping [36] and Jiangle (Fujian) [37], among others. However, such archaeological discoveries remain limited in number. Therefore, relying solely on these few ancient mining sites to explain the raw-material sources of all ancient Chinese jade artifacts is insufficient. A comprehensive understanding of ancient jade provenance must combine archaeological evidence with comparative analyses of modern nephrite deposits.
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Figure 5. Distribution of nephrite deposits in China.
Figure 5. Distribution of nephrite deposits in China.
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(1) Studies of Modern Nephrite Deposits

Modern nephrite provenance research primarily employs four analytical dimensions: spectroscopic techniques, trace-element geochemistry, isotopic analysis, and geochronology.
Spectroscopic Techniques
Spectroscopic methods—including infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS)—have been extensively applied to distinguish nephrite from different deposits. These non-destructive techniques, especially when combined with chemometric approaches, provide new perspectives for the provenance identification of nephrite jade [38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50].
Trace-Element Geochemistry
Trace elements serve as crucial geochemical indicators in mineralogy, petrology, and gemmology. Even among nephrite deposits of similar genetic types, variations in tectonic setting, host-rock composition, fluid chemistry, and P–T conditions result in subtle differences in trace-element patterns. By comparing trace-element data from nephrite of different provenances, researchers attempt to define geochemical fingerprints that can differentiate jade sources. Analytical techniques employed include X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), and proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). Geochemical characterization based on major, trace, and rare-earth elements (REEs), combined with discriminant and cluster analysis, has improved the accuracy of provenance determination and offered new insights for studying the origins of ancient jade artifacts [51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59].
Isotopic Studies
Isotopic analysis of nephrite, though initiated early, remains relatively limited in scope and application. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope ratios have proven effective in distinguishing nephrite from China, Russia, and Korea, but isotopic overlap becomes significant when comparing deposits within northwestern China, reducing discriminative power. [60,61,62]
Geochronology
Common isotopic dating methods include U–Th–Pb, Rb–Sr, Sm–Nd, Lu–Hf, K–Ar, and Re–Os systems. Earlier studies often employed K–Ar or ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating, but more recently U–(Th)–Pb dating has become the preferred approach. Zircon and titanite within nephrite-bearing rocks are typically analyzed, and ages of related intrusive rocks (e.g., granites) are also used to constrain nephrite formation ages. The growing dataset now allows for quantitative evaluation of the potential role of mineralization ages in nephrite provenance studies [63].

(2) Provenance Study of Ancient Jade Artifacts

Archaeometric Approaches
The provenance study of ancient jade artifacts integrates microscopic [64,65,66], mineralogical [67], geochemical [68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81], and isotopic analyses [82,83]. Methods include high-resolution hyperspectral imaging, gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical clustering to identify provenance-related patterns. While geological context and mineral paragenesis can suggest the type of deposit, precise provenance determination remains limited. Isotopic applications are still at an early stage, with few conclusive results, whereas trace-element and REE analyses have proven the most effective. Based on regional metallogenic characteristics of tremolite jade deposits in China, researchers have proposed multi-strategy linear discriminant models using combined REE and trace-element data to explore how alteration may influence major- and trace-element compositions [41]. This has led to the establishment of a hierarchical provenance framework, enabling stepwise analysis from regional to local levels. In future research, the integration of trace-element and REE datasets will likely become the principal approach for jade provenance studies.
However, current studies predominantly focus on unweathered (unaltered) ancient jades. Given that unearthed jade artifacts have undergone significant changes during their life history, especially due to alteration processes, these transformations must be considered when determining provenance. Chemical modifications induced by alteration may significantly affect element distributions and isotopic signatures, potentially leading to misinterpretations if ignored. Therefore, provenance studies must adapt modern nephrite analytical methods to account for post-depositional alteration effects. Developing provenance techniques specifically suited to altered jade artifacts is thus a foundational task for major future research. Ultimately, establishing comprehensive isotopic and geochemical databases for both jade deposits and unearthed jades will be essential for understanding the role of jade resource utilization in the emergence, formation, and development of Chinese civilization and jade culture.

Provenance Study of Turquoise

Substantial progress has been achieved in the provenance study of turquoise, with systematic research conducted on dozens of modern deposits, mineralization sites, and ancient mining sites across China (Figure 6 and Table 2). Through comprehensive comparative analysis, researchers have identified characteristic mineralogical and geochemical features for each deposit. Two key parameters—indicator minerals and trace elements—serve as the principal criteria for provenance discrimination.
Indicator Minerals
Turquoise from sedimentary–metamorphic-type deposits typically contains carbonaceous components, giving the mineral a darker tone, and its surface often exhibits black iron veins. In contrast, turquoise from igneous-type deposits commonly shows white speckles (“white spots”) on its surface. Turquoise from the Ma’anshan deposit (Anhui Province) has relatively lower density, and the bright, positive-toned blue color is a distinctive feature. Furthermore, each turquoise deposit contains specific associated or accessory minerals that can serve as mineralogical indicators for provenance identification.
Trace-Element Characteristics
Based on the distinct enrichment patterns of trace elements under different geological settings, multivariate statistical methods have been successfully applied to establish provenance discrimination models for turquoise from various deposit types, mining districts, and mineral belts. Using cross-validation and hierarchical provenance tracing, researchers have constructed a multi-evidence provenance system for turquoise that can be effectively applied to unearthed turquoise artifacts.
Effects of Alteration and Weathering
By analyzing the structural and compositional differences between the altered (weathered) and fresh layers of turquoise, it has been found that physicochemical weathering leads to dissolution and leaching of major components such as Al₂O₃ and P₂O₅, along with the loss of trace elements including Cr, Co, and U. These processes increase microporosity in the surface layer, producing a whitening effect and forming a weathered crust approximately tens of micrometers thick. Importantly, the study concludes that alteration and weathering effects exert no significant influence on the accuracy of provenance determination for unearthed turquoise artifacts [84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143].

Discussion

Recent advances in archaeometric research have greatly enhanced the study of ancient jade artifacts in China. With the aid of portable analytical instruments, the material identification of jade artifacts can now be conducted rapidly, accurately, and non-destructively. Future work should focus on the large-scale application of such techniques to unearthed jade artifacts, ensuring comprehensive and reliable material characterization. On this foundation, big data analyses may be used to explore the historical trajectories of different materials, particularly the introduction and use of exotic gem materials, providing new evidence for trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Road.
Research on alteration, the characteristic surface transformation of ancient jade artifacts—was once among the most challenging topics in jade studies. Over the past two decades, however, major breakthroughs have been achieved. Systematic classification and simulation experiments have clarified the mechanisms of formation for each type of alteration color, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon. These advances have provided a scientific foundation for all subsequent fields of jade research. In the future, alteration studies will become increasingly integrated with jade culture research, offering new perspectives on ritual systems and patterns of use.
The provenance study of jade materials remains one of the most prominent and complex research areas and will continue to be a central focus for future investigations. The discovery of ancient jade-mining sites represents a major breakthrough, offering direct evidence for raw-material acquisition. Technological progress, including the application of ICP-MS and portable XRF (p-XRF), has greatly improved the analytical capacity of provenance studies. The integration of multiple data types—especially trace-element and rare-earth-element (REE) data—has enabled the construction of multi-strategy linear discriminant models, leading to multi-level hierarchical provenance frameworks. Key research challenges for future provenance studies include: Discovering and confirming a larger number of ancient jade-mining sites; Establishing analytical methods for pebble-derived raw materials (river pebbles); Assessing the influence of alteration types on provenance results; Optimizing data acquisition by replacing large-scale instruments with portable devices; and Refining analytical approaches to develop multi-dimensional provenance models, beyond composition-based analyses alone.
Craftsmanship studies represent another core dimension of jade research. Over the past two decades, high-resolution digital microscopy, 3D optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have been applied to analyze micro-wear and tool traces on jade surfaces. Combined with experimental archaeology, these results have reconstructed the technological systems and traditions of ancient Chinese jade craftsmanship. The discovery of jade workshops provides crucial archaeological evidence for production processes. Future studies should integrate archaeological remains of workshops with replicative experiments, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of technological development across different regions and periods.
Archaeological typology, as a methodological bridge between archaeology and jade culture research, is now entering a transformative stage. The application of machine learning and related artificial-intelligence techniques promises to revolutionize typological classification and cultural analysis. Although their use in jade research remains limited, these methods represent one of the most promising directions for future exploration.
Research on the conservation of ancient jade artifacts remains minimal. No dedicated institutions or teams currently focus on this field, largely because most ancient jades are relatively physically stable and chemically inert. However, as excavation, exhibition, and environmental factors increase, the long-term conservation of ancient jade should receive greater attention.

Conclusions

Over the past two decades, the scientific study of ancient Chinese jade artifacts has achieved substantial progress, forming an increasingly mature system of methods and frameworks. Significant advances have been made in material identification, alteration studies, and provenance research. Among these, provenance study is expected to become the most critical and influential field in the coming years. Nevertheless, provenance research faces numerous challenges: it requires locating ancient jade mines, accounting for the effects of alteration on compositional data, dealing with the non-destructive and immobile nature of most excavated jades, and considering that many raw materials may have originated from naturally collected pebbles rather than mined deposits. These factors demand new analytical strategies and data-processing models. Furthermore, the study of gemstone materials—especially those rarely used in ancient China but widely used elsewhere—provides important evidence for cross-cultural trade and exchange. The rapid development of artificial intelligence also introduces new methodologies for typological classification and craftsmanship analysis, expanding the scope and depth of jade research. Ultimately, the study of jade is not only central to understanding ancient Chinese civilization, but also serves as a key lens for examining Eurasian cultural interactions and trade networks. Future interdisciplinary research—combining archaeology, materials science, and data science—will continue to reveal new perspectives and deepen our appreciation of ancient human creativity and technological sophistication.

Future Directions

Material Studies of Ancient Jade Artifacts: The analytical methods for material identification of ancient jade artifacts have become highly mature. With the application of portable archaeometric instruments, the composition and mineral species of jade artifacts can now be determined rapidly, accurately, and non-destructively. Future research should promote the widespread application of scientific techniques in jade studies, establishing a comprehensive and systematic understanding of jade materials. Particular attention should be given to identifying the earliest periods of use and developmental trajectories of different jade materials. The study of exotic gem materials introduced into China will provide crucial evidence for cultural interaction and trade exchange, especially along the Silk Road.
Alteration Studies: Research on alteration in ancient jades has now reached a mature stage, forming a coherent methodological framework for investigating the color and mechanism of alteration. Future work should aim to refine and expand the current understanding of alteration mechanisms, with a focus on acid–base simulation experiments, which are expected to play a central role in revealing the natural weathering processes of jade. Additionally, it will be essential to examine how alteration and surface weathering may affect the outcomes of provenance studies, ensuring that the influence of post-depositional changes is accurately assessed in material-source analyses.
Craftsmanship Studies: Current research on jade craftsmanship relies primarily on high-resolution photography, 3D digital microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to document and analyze micro-wear features and tool traces on jade artifacts. Future research should emphasize the integration of scientific and technological approaches into the study of jade craftsmanship by establishing a large-scale database of micro-trace evidence. Combining this with experimental archaeology, scholars can reconstruct the complete technological processes of jade production, thereby achieving a deeper understanding of ancient jade carving and polishing techniques and the technological evolution of jade-working traditions in different regions and periods.
Provenance Studies: With the recent breakthroughs in alteration research, the provenance study of ancient jade materials will undoubtedly become the most significant research frontier in the coming decades. The archaeological discovery of ancient jade-mining sites has provided valuable physical evidence for raw-material studies, while continuous refinement of data acquisition and analytical methods has led to the establishment of an increasingly robust scientific framework for provenance research. The progress in alteration studies now provides the necessary theoretical foundation for more reliable and integrated provenance analyses, and the collective development of all other jade research fields—material, alteration, and craftsmanship—lays a solid groundwork for the future of source-tracing research.
Typological and AI-Assisted Research: The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) has opened new pathways for archaeological typology and cultural analysis. AI-driven methods such as machine learning and computer vision hold the potential to revolutionize the classification systems and interpretive frameworks of jade typology. Although the use of AI in jade research remains in its infancy, it represents a key frontier for future development, promising to transform both methodology and theory in the study of ancient jade culture.
Conservation of Ancient Jade Artifacts: In the past, the conservation of ancient jades received limited attention, largely due to their relative physical stability. However, recent advances in alteration research have highlighted the importance of active conservation and provided valuable references for preservation practices. Future conservation work will involve two key components: The extraction and protection of fragile jade artifacts during excavation, particularly from major Neolithic sites such as the Liangzhu culture, the Lingjiatan culture, and the Dayuanzi cemetery in Yunnan; The long-term conservation of jade collections in museums. The protection of fragile jades is both crucial and challenging—it requires the integration of archaeological excavation and conservation science from the earliest stages of fieldwork. This combined approach represents the future direction for the preservation of excavated artifacts of all material types.

Author Contributions

Writing, review and editing, Y.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is funded by the Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China (23&ZD272).

Data Availability Statement

Data are available from the authors upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the life history of ancient Chinese jade artifacts and the main research domains in the study of unearthed jades.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the life history of ancient Chinese jade artifacts and the main research domains in the study of unearthed jades.
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Figure 2. Relationship between jade mine, jade rind (pi) and alteration (qin).
Figure 2. Relationship between jade mine, jade rind (pi) and alteration (qin).
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Figure 3. Schematic color classification of alteration in ancient jade artifacts.
Figure 3. Schematic color classification of alteration in ancient jade artifacts.
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Figure 4. Color classification and formation mechanisms of alteration in unearthed jade artifacts.
Figure 4. Color classification and formation mechanisms of alteration in unearthed jade artifacts.
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Figure 6. Distribution of turquoise deposits in China.
Figure 6. Distribution of turquoise deposits in China.
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Table 1. Types of jade materials used in ancient China.
Table 1. Types of jade materials used in ancient China.
Category Gem Chemical Formula Archaeological Example
1 Jade category Nephrite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
2 Jadeite NaAlSi2O6 Beijing Palace Museum
3 Agate / Chalcedony SiO2 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
4 Pyrophyllite Al2Si4O10(OH)2 Zhejiang Yuyao Hemudu Site(5050–4550 BC)
5 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
6 Chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2·nH2O Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
7 Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Zhejiang Tongxiang Luojiajiao Site(5050 BC)
8 Dickite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Zhejiang Yuyao Tianluoshan Site(5050 BC)
9 Illite K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10 [(OH)2,(H2O)] Shanxi Xiajin Tomb(2500 BC)
10 Serpentine (Mg,Fe)3Si2O5(OH)4 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
11 Mica KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
12 Calcite CaCO3 Henan Xinzheng Tanghu Site(7650–5850 BC)
13 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O Henan Xichuan Xiawanggang Site(1680–1610 BC)
14 Celestite SrSO4 Hubei Jingmen Zuozhong Chu Tomb(475–221 BC)
15 Alunite KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 Anhui Hanshan Lingjiatan Site(3350–3650 BC)
16 Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2 Liaoning Dalian Dapanjiacun Site(3050–2050 BC)
17 Lapis Lazuli Na8(AlSiO4)6(SO4,S,Cl)2 Heilongjiang Raohe Xiaonanshan Site(7250–6650 BC)
18 Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O Henan Wuyang Jiahu Site(7050–5550 BC)
19 Feldspar KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8 Liaoning Jianping Niuheliang Site(3550–3050 BC)
20 Marble CaCO3 (metamorphic calcite) Shanxi Xiajin Tomb(2500 BC)
21 Opal SiO2·nH2O Henan Anyang Yinxu Site(1290–1046 BC)
22 Cinnabar HgS Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
23 Gemstone category Sillimanite Al2SiO5 Henan Wuyang Jiahu Site(7050–5550 BC)
24 Fluorite CaF2 Henan Hebi Liuzhuang Site(1680–1550 BC)
25 Garnet (Fe,Mg,Ca,Mn)3(Al,Fe)2(SiO4)3 Henan Anyang Yinxu Hougang Site(1290–1046 BC)
26 Single Crystal Quartz SiO2 Anhui Hanshan Lingjiatan Site(3650–3350 BC)
27 Beryl Be3Al2Si6O18 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
28 Chrysoberyl BeAl2O4 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
29 Corundum Al2O3 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
30 Tourmaline Na(Mg,Fe,Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
31 Hypersthene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 Liaoning Jianping Niuheliang Site(3550–3050 BC)
32 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH) Henan Anyang Yinxu Anyang Gangtiechang Site(1290–1046 BC)
33 Epidote Ca2(Al,Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH) Henan Dengzhou Baligang Site(5050 BC)
34 Spinel MgAl2O4 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
35 Zircon ZrSiO4 Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
36 Wavellite Al3(PO4)2(OH,F)3·5H2O Henan Hebi Liuzhuang Site(1680–1550 BC)
37 Triplite (Mn,Fe)2(PO4)(F,OH) Jiangxi Xingan Dayangzhou Shang Tomb(1250–1090 BC)
38 Organic gemstones Pearl CaCO3·nH2O (aragonite + organic matter) Hubei Liangzhuang Prince Tomb(1368–1644 AD)
39 Tortoiseshell Organic keratin (protein material) Hunan Changsha Mawangdui Han Tomb(202–157 BC)
40 Jet (Lignite) C (amorphous carbon) Liaoning Shenyang Xinle Site(5350–4850 BC)
41 Amber C10H16O (approx.) Jiangxi Haihunhou Han Tomb(202 BC–9 AD)
42 Shell CaCO3 (mainly aragonite) Xinjiang Tashikuergan Jierzankale Tomb(450–650 BC)
43 Ivory Ca10(PO4)6·(OH)2 + organic collagen Hubei Yejiashan Tomb(1046–771 BC)
44 Coral CaCO3 (calcite or aragonite) Xinjiang Niya Site(220–420 AD)
45 Synthetic gem materials Liuli (Chinese glass) PbO–BaO–SiO2 (lead-barium glass) Xinjiang Tashikuergan Jierzankale Tomb(450–650 BC)
46 Glass Non-crystalline silicate (varies) Guangxi Hepu Han Tomb(206 BC–220 AD)
47 Faience SiO2 (with alkali glaze) Henan Sanmenxia Guo State Tomb(1046–771 BC)
Table 2. Major turquoise deposits in China.
Table 2. Major turquoise deposits in China.
Deposit Type Mining Area Mineralization Belt Mining Site Type Period of Exploitation
Sedimentary–metamorphic type Hubei–Henan–Shaanxi region Southern belt Baihe, Zhushan, Yunxi, Yungaisi Modern deposit —
Central belt Xichuan Mineralized point —
Northern belt Hekou Ancient mining site ca. 3925–535 years BP
Guǐyu Ancient mining site Zhou Dynasty (Western–Eastern Zhou)
Qinghai Ulan Duancengshan, Gaotelamon Modern deposit —
Xinjiang Hami Tianhu East site, Heishanling site Ancient mining site ca. 3470–2390 years BP
Yunnan Lubian Town — — —
Gansu Aksai — — —
Inner Mongolia Alxa Haobeiru site Ancient mining site Eastern Zhou period
Magmatic type Anhui Ma’anshan Bijiashan, Dian’anshan, Dahuangshan Modern deposit —
Tongling — Modern deposit —
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