Single-molecule fluorescence detection (SMFD) experiments are useful in distinguishing sub-populations of molecular species when measuring heterogeneous samples. One experimental platform for SMFD is based on a confocal microscope, where molecules randomly traverse an effective detection volume. The non-uniformity of the excitation profile and the random nature of Brownian motion, produce fluctuating fluorescence signals. For these signals to be distinguished from the background, burst analysis is frequently used. Yet, the relation between the results of burst analyses and the underlying information of the diffusing molecules is still obscure and requires systematic assessment. In this work we performed three-dimensional Brownian motion simulations of SMFD, and tested the positions at which molecules emitted photons that passed the burst analysis criteria for different values of burst analysis parameters. The results of this work verify which of the burst analysis parameters and experimental conditions influence both the position of molecules in space when fluorescence is detected and taken into account, and whether these bursts of photons arise purely from single molecules, or not entirely. Finally, we show, as an example, the effect of bursts that are not purely from a single molecule on the accuracy in single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer measurements.

In this paper, we argue that one can calculate the weak deflection angle in the background of Einstein-Maxwell-Dilaton-Axion black hole using the Gauss-Bonnet theorem. To support this, the optical geometry of the black hole with the Gibbons-Werner method are used to obtain the deflection angle of light in the weak field limits. Moreover, we investigate the effect of a plasma medium on deflection of light for a given black hole. Because of dilaton and axion are one of the candidate of the dark matter, it can give us a hint on observation of dark matter which is supported the black hole. Hence we demonstrate the observational viability via showing the effect of the dark matter on the weak deflection angle.

Three physical elements are missing from the conventional formalism of quantum photonics: 1) the quantum Rayleigh spontaneous and stimulated emissions; 2) the unavoidable parametric amplification; and 3) the mixed time-frequency spectral structure of a photonic field which specifies its duration or spatial extent. As a single photon enters a dielectric medium, the quantum Rayleigh scattering prevents it from propagating in a straight-line, thereby destroying any possible entanglement. A pure dynamic and coherent state composed of two consecutive number states, delivers the correct expectation values for the number of photons carried by a photonic wave front, its complex optical field, and phase quadratures. The intrinsic longitudinal and lateral field profiles associated with a group of photons for any instantaneous number of photons are independent of the source. These photonic properties enable a step-by-step analysis of the correlation functions characterizing counting of coincident numbers of photons or intensities with unity visibility interference, spanning the classical and quantum optic regimes

Bell type inequalities are proven using oversimplified probabilistic models and/or counterfactual definiteness (CFD). If setting-dependent variables describing measuring instruments are correctly introduced none of these inequalities may be proven. In spite of this a belief in a mysterious quantum nonlocality is not fading. Computer simulations of Bell tests allow studying different scenarios how the experimental data might have been created. They allow also to generate outcomes of various counterfactual experiments such as repeated or simultaneous measurements performed in different settings on the same ‘’ photon-pair” etc. They allow reinforcing or relaxing CFD- compliance and /or to study the impact of various “photon identification procedures” mimicking those used in real experiments. Using a specific setting- dependent identification procedure data samples consistent with quantum predictions may be generated. It reflects an active role of instruments during the measurement process. Each setting dependent data samples are consistent with specific setting –dependent probabilistic models which may not be deduced using non-contextual local realistic or stochastic hidden variables. In this paper we discuss the results of these simulations. Since the data samples are generated in a locally causal way, these simulations provide additional strong arguments for closing the door on quantum nonlocality

With the increasing adoption of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), concerns arise about potential glare. While recommended criteria to assess glare exist, it is challenging to apply these in the spatial and temporal domains and communicate the complex data to planning authorities and clients. This paper presents a new computational workflow using annual daylight simulation, material modelling using bi-directional scattering distribution functions (BSDFs) and image-based postprocessing to obtain 3-dimensional renderings of cumulative annual irradiance and glare duration on the built environment. The annual daylight simulation considers relevant sun positions in high temporal resolution (15-minute timesteps) and measured BSDFs to model different PV materials. The postprocessing includes a relative irradiance visualisation comparing the impact of a proposed PV proportional to a reference material. It also includes a new spatio-temporal workflow to assess the glare duration based on recommended thresholds. This workflow is demonstrated with a case study of a proposed PV roof for a church, assessing the glare potential of two different PV materials. The visualisations indicate glare durations well below the thresholds with satinated PVs, and in noncritical zones outside observer positions with standard PVs. Thus the proposed PV roof does not cause any disturbing glare.

To understand the mystery of final unification, in our earlier publications, we proposed two bold concepts: 1) There exist three atomic gravitational constants associated with electroweak, strong and electromagnetic interactions. 2) There exists a strong elementary charge in such a way that its squared ratio with normal elementary charge is close to reciprocal of the strong coupling constant. In this paper we propose that, can be considered as a compound physical constant associated with proton mass, electron mass and the three atomic gravitational constants. With these ideas, an attempt is made to understand nuclear stability and binding energy. In this new approach, nuclear binding energy can be fitted with four simple terms having one unique energy coefficient with a formula, where is an estimated mean stable mass number. With this new approach, Newtonian gravitational constant can be estimated in a verifiable approach with a model relation of the form, where is the Fine structure constant. Estimated and is 62 ppm higher than the CODATA recommended It needs further investigation. Proceeding further, an attempt is made to fit the recommended quark masses.

An attempt is made to model the atomic nucleus as a combination of bound and free or unbound nucleons. Due to strong interaction, bound nucleons help in increasing nuclear binding energy and due to electroweak interaction, free or unbound nucleons help in decreasing nuclear binding energy. In this context, with reference to proposed 4G model of final unification and strong interaction, recently we have developed a unified nuclear binding energy scheme with four simple terms, one energy coefficient of 10.1 MeV and two small numbers 0.0016 and 0.0019. In this paper, by eliminating the number 0.0019, we try to fine tune the estimation procedure of number of free or unbound nucleons pertaining to the second term with an energy coefficient of 11.9 MeV. It seems that, some kind of electroweak interaction is playing a strange role in maintaining free or unbound nucleons within the nucleus. It is possible to say that, strong interaction plays a vital role in increasing nuclear binding energy and electroweak interaction plays a vital role in reducing nuclear binding energy. Interesting observation is that, Z can be considered as a characteristic representation of range of number of bound isotopes of Z. For medium, heavy and super heavy atoms, beginning and ending mass numbers pertaining to bound states can be understood with 2Z+0.004Z^2 and 3Z+0.004Z^2 respectively. With further study, neutron drip lines can be understood. Based on this kind of data fitting procedure and by considering the mass ratio of pions and electroweak bosons, existence of our 4G model of electroweak fermion of rest energy 584.725 GeV can be confirmed confidently.

The performance of the presurgical test (preSurg) for temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was evaluated via video-electroencephalography (VEEG), electroencephalography (EEG), 99mTc-HmPAO single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) and 1.5 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a group of 112 men (37.0 ± 1.1 years) and 106 women (39.7 ± 1.1 years) operated on for TLE. The epileptic zone (EZ) was adequately identified to determine whether the patient reached an Engel I grade (EI) at least one year postop. Accuracy was evaluated by the coefficient α, ranging from 3 (when result = EZ) to 2 (result in the same hemisphere as the EZ), 1 (noninformative result) or 0 (EZ in the contralateral hemisphere). The simplicity of diagnosis was defined as the number of preSurg surgeries needed to identify the EZ. EI was obtained in 85.8% of patients even though 42.2% of patients had noninformative MRI results. For preSurg α was (mean ± SEM) = VEEG (2.83 ± 0.04) > MRI (2.14 ± 0.08) > EEG (1.87 ± 0.09) > SPECT (1.71 ± 0.09). The accuracy (combination of sensitivity and specificity) was calculated as follows: VEEG (0.797) > MRI (0.518) > EEG (0.446) > SPECT (0.360). The likelihood positive ratio was greater, and the likelihood negative ratio was lower for VEEG. The most relevant factor for the regression model was VEEG (3.106) > MRI (2.558) > EEG (1.905), and the factors were not significantly related to SPECT. EZs in EI patients with low simplicity were identified mainly by VEEG. A very good postoperative outcome can be obtained even in TLE patients with no lesions on MRI. The VEEG is the most reliable preSurg test and may be the only reliable test for patients with very low simplicity (i.e., difficult).single paragraph of about 200 words maximum. For research articles, abstracts should give a pertinent overview of the work. We strongly encourage authors to use the following style of structured abstracts, but without headings: (1) Background: Place the question addressed in a broad context and highlight the purpose of the study; (2) Methods: briefly describe the main methods or treatments applied; (3) Results: summarize the article’s main findings; (4) Conclusions: indicate the main conclusions or interpretations. The abstract should be an objective representation of the article and it must not contain results that are not presented and substantiated in the main text and should not exaggerate the main conclusions.

The presence of the quantum Rayleigh scattering, or spontaneous emission, inside a dielectric medium such as a beam splitter or an interferometric filter, prevents a single-photon from propagating in a straight-line. Modelling a beam splitter by means of a unitary transformation is physically meaningless because of the loss of photons. Additional missing elements from the conventional theory are: 1) the quantum Rayleigh stimulated emission which can form groups of photons of the same frequencies, and 2) the unavoidable parametric amplification of single-photons in the original parametric crystal. An interference filter disturbs, through multiple internal reflections, the original stream of single-photons, thereby confirming the existence of groups of photons being spread out to lengthen the coherence time. The approach of modelling individual, single measurements with statistical ensemble probability amplitudes leads to the counterintuitive explanations of the experimental outcomes and should be replaced with pure states describing instantaneous measurements which are afterwards averaged.

Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) is a cutting-edge nonlinear microscopy technique known for its exceptional capabilities in imaging dense tissues, making it an ideal tool for exploring human kidney tissue. This study delves into the application of MPM in evaluating renal cell tumors and characterizing tumor capsules. MPM encompasses two core methods: two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) and second harmonic generation (SHG). It leverages femtosecond lasers to provide deep tissue imaging while minimizing phototoxicity, making it well-suited for live tissue analysis. The study analyzed 100 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) kidney tissue samples, ensuring compliance with ethical standards. Using a Ti:Sapphire laser for femtosecond pulses and a variety of optical components and filters, the researchers captured TPEF and SHG signals, facilitating image analysis. Normal kidney tissue exhibited distinctive structures like glomeruli and tubules under MPM. Renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) displayed unique TPEF patterns with eccentrically located nuclei and indistinct cytoplasmic membranes. Papillary RCC (pRCC) exhibited a papillary pattern with dark nuclei, while chromophobe RCC (chRCC) showcased distinct features like thick cell membranes, strong TPEF signal in nuclei, and granular cytoplasm. Renal oncocytoma (RO) presented strong TPEF signals in cuboidal cells with microcyst-like arrangements. Overall, MPM proved invaluable in assessing human kidney tissue, offering distinct TPEF patterns for different renal cell tumor types. This non-invasive technique has the potential to enhance pathological examinations and advance our understanding of complex biological processes, ultimately contributing to improved diagnostics and treatment strategies for renal diseases.

Two-photon imaging of light stimulus-evoked neuronal activity has been used to study all neuron classes in the vertebrate retina, from the photoreceptors to the retinal ganglion cells. Clearly, the ability to study retinal circuits down to the level of single synapses or zoomed out at the level of complete populations of neurons, has been a major asset in our understanding of this beautiful circuit. In this chapter, we discuss the possibilities and pitfalls of using an all-optical approach in this highly light-sensitive part of the brain.

The interaction of electrons with strong laser fields is usually treated with semiclassical theory, where the laser is represented by an external field. There are analytic solutions for the free electron wave functions, which incorporate the interaction with the laser field exactly, but the joint effect of the atomic binding potential presents an obstacle for the analysis. Moreover, the radiation is a dynamical system, the number of photons changes during the interactions. Thus, it is legitimate to ask how can one treat the high order processes nonperturbatively, in such a way that the electron-atom interaction and the quantized nature of radiation be simultaneously taken into account? An analytic method is proposed to answer this question in the framework of nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics. As an application, a quantum optical generalization of the strong-field Kramers-Heisenberg formula is derived for describing high-harmonic generation. Our formalism is suitable to analyse, among various quantal effects, the possible role of arbitrary photon statistics of the incoming field. The present paper is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Dr. Fritz Ehlotzky, who had significantly contributed to the theory of strong-field phenomena over many decades.

Direct laser writing three-dimensional nano-lithography is an established technique for manufacturing functional 3D micro- and nano-objects via non-linear absorption induced polymerization process. In this Chapter an underlying physical mechanisms taking place during nano-confined polymerization reaction, induced by tightly focused ultra-short laser pulses, are reviewed and discussed. The special attention is paid on the effects that directly impact structuring resolution and minimum achievable feature size. Analysis of possible photo-initiation mechanisms as contributing multi-photon absorption and avalanche ionization in pre-polymers under diverse exposure conditions (wavelength, pulse duration) is presented. Feasible structuring of pure (non-photosensitized) and functional nanoparticles doped polymer precursors is justified and benefits of such materials/structures for microoptics, photonics and cell scaffolds are highlighted. The influence of temperature effects (induced by writing process itself or determined by ambient conditions) on polymerization process, observed in different pre-polymers under diverse exposure regimes is outlined. The further adjustment of the structuring resolution is possible via precise control of light polarization and diffusion assisted radical quenching. The work is concluded with a brief outlook on future challenges and perspectives related to refinement of 3D ultra-fast laser lithography fabrication process in the means of application of diverse post-processing methods and research into novel photo-curable materials including inorganic ones.

3D meso-scale structures that can reach up to centimeters in overall size but retain micro- or nano-features, proved to be promising in various science fields ranging from micro-mechanical metamaterials to photonics and bio-medical scaffolds. In this work we present synchronization of the linear and galvano scanners for efficient femtosecond 3D optical printing of objects at the meso-scale (from sub-μm to sub-cm spanning five orders of magnitude). In such configuration the linear stages provide stitch-free structuring at nearly limitless (up to tens-of-cm) working area, while galvo-scanners allow to achieve translation velocities in the range of mm/s-cm/s without sacrificing nano-scale positioning accuracy and preserving undistorted shape of the final print. The principle behind this approach is demonstrated, proving its inherent advantages in comparison to separate use of only linear stages or scanners. The printing rate is calculated in terms voxels/s, showcasing the capability to maintain an optimal feature size while increasing throughput. Full capabilities of this approach are demonstrated by fabricating structures that reach millimeters in size but still retain μm-scale features: scaffolds for cell growth, microlenses and photonic crystals. All this is combined into a benchmark structure: a meso-butterfly. Provided results show that synchronization of two scan modes is crucial for the end goal of industrial-scale implementation of this technology and makes the laser printing well aligned with similar approaches in nanofabrication by electron and ion beams.

The genetic code evolved around the reading of the tRNA anticodon on the primitive ribosome, and tRNA-34 wobble and tRNA-37 modifications coevolved with the code. We posit that EF-Tu, the closing mechanism of the 30S ribosomal subunit, methylation of wobble U34 at the 5-carbon and suppression of wobbling at the tRNA-36 position were partly redundant and overlapping functions that coevolved to establish the code. The genetic code devolved in evolution of mitochondria to reduce the size of the tRNAome (all of the tRNAs of an organism or organelle). “Superwobbling” or four-way wobbling describes a major mechanism for shrinking the mitochondrial tRNAome. In superwobbling, unmodified wobble tRNA-U34 can recognize all four codon wobble bases (A, G, C and U), allowing a single unmodified tRNA-U34 to read a 4-codon box. During code evolution, to suppress superwobbling in 2-codon sectors, U34 modification by methylation at the 5-carbon position appears essential. As expected, at the base of code evolution, tRNA-37 modifications mostly related to the identity of the adjacent tRNA-36 base. TRNA-37 modifications help maintain the translation frame during elongation.

A series of derivatives, involving two dithienylethene (DTE), groups, connected by several molecular linkers (bis(ethylene-1,2-dithiolato)Ni- (NiBDT), naphthalene, quasilinear oligothiophene chains) are investigated with the aid of computational quantum chemistry methods. This involves the computation of the second- and third-order nonlinear optical properties, i.e. molecular hyperpolarizabilities of the designed/selected derivatives. These properties can be efficiently controlled by DTE switches, in connection with light of appropriate frequency. We found that NiBDT, as a linker, is associated with a greater contrast, in comparison to naphthalene, between the first and second hyperpolarizabilities of the “open-open” and the “closed-closed” isomers. This is explained by invoking the low lying excited states of NiBDT. It has been found that the second hyperpolarizability can be used as an index, which follows the structural changes induced by photochromism. The two-photon absorption, which is related to the imaginary part of second hyperpolarizability, has also been investigated for the S0S1 transition. Furthermore, the intramolecular excited-state energy transfer (EET) is studied as well as the overlap between the absorption and emission spectra of the donor and acceptor groups of the molecules. The electronic coupling, VDA, between the donor and acceptor fragments, as well as the emission spectrum of the donor and the absorption spectrum of the acceptor have been computed, assuming a Förster type transfer mechanism. EET is a critical factor governing the photochromism. Two methods were used to compute VDA, one based on linear response and one based on the distributed multipole analysis (DMA); both techniques give very similar results for the dominating Coulomb contribution. For NiBDT as the linker a low VDA value has been computed. We found that VDA is affected by the molecular geometry. Our results clearly show that the linker strongly influences the communication between the open-closed DTE groups and thus, photochromism. The present computations show that full photochromism is attained in derivatives where two DTE groups are linked by a tetrathiophene chain, in agreement with experiment. The sensitivity of molecular linear and nonlinear optical properties upon photochromism can assist with the identification of the molecular isomers.

The negative energy solutions of the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations have been used to define the antiparticle with the positive energy from the Feynman - Stueckelberg interpretation in the standard model based on the 4-D Minkowski space with the relative time. The negative energy solutions of the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations are used to define the antiparticles with the negative energy in the present 3-D quantized space model. Note that all the present results are based on the 4-D Euclidean space with the absolute time (t) and relative time (t_l). Then the particle with the positive energy and antiparticle with the negative energy have the 4-D P₄ = TCP = T_cP symmetry. The continuity equations are derived from the Klein-Gordon, Dirac and Schrodinger equations. The Klein-Gordon and Schrodinger equations with the potential barriers are solved. The Klein paradox is explained by using the pair production of the electron with the positive energy and positron with the negative energy under the P₄ = _TcP symmetry, The effective velocity ( c_eff=√2 " c " ) and effective energy ("Etl =" √2 E ) along the relative time axis (ctl) give the relative time momentum of "p_tl"=E_tl/c_eff =(√2 E)/(√2 c)=E/c=p_t=p_x. This indicates that the photons with the energy of E have the constant photon velocity of c and the constant photon momentum of "ptl"=E_tl/c_eff =(√2 E)/(√2 c)=E/c=p_t=p_x. For the negative energy particles, the space momentum directions are opposite to the particle velocity directions because the energy is negative. And the matter collapse to the photons at the very high particle velocity is discussed from the length expansion. It is, for the first time, proposed that the gamma ray burst is originated from the matter collapse to the photons near the black hole. Also, the wave function collapse is explained from the length expansion. The wave function collapse takes place when the measurement makes the particle velocity to be zero. It is concluded that the negative energy solutions of the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations support the existence of the partner antimatter universe with the negative energy and negative time direction. Our matter universe has the positive energy and the positive time direction.

Origins of the time, mass, electric charges and magnetic monopoles are explained. The energies, electric charges and magnetic charges of the particles are defined as E = cDtDV and |q| = cDt = E/DV, and |q_m| = c²Dt, respectively, for the 3-D quantized spaces warped along the time axis direction of ct in the 4-D Euclidean space. The energy (or mass) and charges (or electric charges and magnetic charges) are the vectors along the time axis of ct in the 4-D Euclidean space. This new concept is closely connected to the wave function of the quantum mechanics. The electric charges, magnetic charges and energies have the property of the space direction independence. Magnetic monopoles (charges) are the force carrying bosons with the inside electric field time loop. Electric monopoles are the elementary fermions. Photon space fluctuations are explained with the quantized magnetic charges.

Inflammation involves the activation of innate immune cells and is believed to play an important role in the development and progression of both infectious and non-infectious diseases such as neurodegeneration, rheumatoid arthritis or cancer. Inflammation in the brain is marked by the upregulation of the translocator protein (TSPO) in microglia. Moreover, high TSPO levels are found, for example in macrophages during rheumatoid arthritis and in malignant tumor cells compared to its relatively low physiological expression. The same applies for cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2), which is constitutively expressed in the kidney, brain, thymus and gastrointestinal tract, but induced in microglia, macrophages and synoviocytes during inflammation. This puts TSPO and COX-2 in the spotlight as important targets for the diagnosis of inflammation. Imaging modalities, such as positron emission tomography and single-photon emission tomography, can be used to localize inflammatory processes and to track their progression over time. They could also enable to monitor the efficacy of therapy and predict its outcome. This review focuses on the current development of PET and SPECT tracers not only for the detection of neuroinflammation, but also for emerging diagnostic measures in infectious and other non-infectious diseases like rheumatic arthritis, cancer, cardiac inflammation and in lung diseases.

Laser Direct Writing (LDW), also known as 3D multi-photon laser lithography of resins, is a promising technique for fabricating complex free-form elements, including micro-optical functional components. Regular organic or hybrid (organic-inorganic) resins are often used, with latter exhibiting better optical characteristics, as well as having the option to be heat-treated into inorganic glass-like structures, particularly useful for resilient micro-optics. While this work is a continuation of SZ2080™ calcination development , the Laser-Induced Damage Threshold (LIDT) of such sol-gel-derived glass micro-structures, particularly those that undergo heat treatment, has not been well-characterized. In this pilot study, we investigated the LIDT using the Series-on-One (S-on-1) protocol of functional micro-lenses produced via LDW and subsequently calcinated. Our results demonstrate that the LIDT can be significantly increased, even multiple times, by this approach, thus enhancing the resilience and usefulness of these free-form micro-optics. This work represents the first investigation in terms of LIDT into the impact of calcination on LDW produced sol-gel-derived glass micro-structures, and provides important insights for the development of robust micro-optical devices.

The time symmetry of T_c = CT is redefined based on the 4-D Euclidean space. The time inversion symmetry of T_c = CT changes the signs of the charge (q) and absolute time (ct) of the particle. The P symmetry changes the signs of the space momenta and handedness of the particle. The T_c symmetry changes the signs of the time momentum (P_t=E/c) and charges. The handedness are classified as the left-handedness and right-handedness on the 3-D space. The charges (|q| = cDt) and energies (E= cDtDV) of the particles are originated from the upward warping (q>0) and downward warping (q<0) of the particles along the time axis. The evolution of our matter universe with P_t > 0 since the big bang can be interpreted based on the CTP symmetry with the partner antimatter universe with p_t < 0. The photon space is called as the vacuum space. Then the E and M waves are the space fluctuations, and the gravitational G wave is the time fluctuations. And the E, M and G fields are newly explained. The zero E and M fields of the photon space indicates that the photon space and gamma ray are the 2EM waves. The rest mass energy of the particle is the 4-D space volume of the warped photon space. In the present work, the quantum wave function is considered as the 4-D vector with the space wave function and time axis wave function in the 4-D Euclidean space. The warped photon space corresponds to the squared wave function which is the probability density. It is concluded that, in the quantum mechanics, the imaginary number concept is introduced in the quantum wave functions instead of the time axis component of the 4-D wave function vector. The left-handed neutrino puzzle is explained from the handedness partner relation with the right-handed dark matters. Finally, the modified Lorentz transformations derived in the 4-D Euclidean space are compared with the Lorentz transformations of the special and general relativity theories in the 4-D Minkowski space.

Vibrational overtones in deeply bound molecules are sensitive probes for variation of the proton-to-electron mass ratio μ. In nonpolar molecules, these overtones may be driven as two-photon transitions. Here, we present procedures for experiments with O₂⁺, including state-preparation through photoionization, a two-photon probe, and detection. We calculate transition dipole moments between all X²П_g vibrational levels and those of the A²П_u excited electronic state. Using these dipole moments, we calculate two-photon transition rates and AC-Stark-shift systematics for the overtones. We estimate other systematic effects and statistical precision. Two-photon vibrational transitions in O₂⁺ provide multiple routes to improved searches for μ variation.

A method for generating fluoroscopic (time-varying) volumetric images using patient-specific motion models derived from 4-dimensional cone-beam CT (4D-CBCT) images is developed. 4D-CBCT images acquired immediately prior to treatment have the potential to accurately represent patient anatomy and respiration during treatment. Fluoroscopic 3D image estimation is done in two steps: 1) deriving motion models and 2) optimization. To derive motion models, every phase in a 4D-CBCT set is registered to a reference phase chosen from the same set using deformable image registration (DIR). Principal components analysis (PCA) is used to reduce the dimensionality of the displacement vector fields (DVFs) resulting from DIR into a few vectors representing organ motion found in the DVFs. The PCA motion models are optimized iteratively by comparing a cone-beam CT (CBCT) projection to a simulated projection computed from both the motion model and a reference 4D-CBCT phase, resulting in a sequence of fluoroscopic 3D images. Patient datasets were used to evaluate the method by estimating the tumor location in the generated images compared to manually defined ground truth positions. Experimental results showed that the average tumor mean absolute error (MAE) along the superior-inferior (SI) direction and the 95th percentile in two patient datasets were (2.29 mm and 5.79 mm) for patient 1 and (1.89 mm and 4.82 mm) for patient 2. This study has demonstrated the feasibility of deriving 4D-CBCT-based PCA motion models that have the potential to account for the 3D non-rigid patient motion and localize tumors and other patient anatomical structures on the day of treatment.

Our matter universe is made up of four components of dark energy (DE), dark matters (DMs), leptons and quarks which are created from the decay of the primary black hole through the inflation after big bang. In the three-dimensional quantized space model, the sum (DER) of the dark energy (DE) and radiations (R) is the flat photon space and there are 39 particles of 3 dark matters, 9 leptons and 27 quarks. Generally speaking, the mass ratio of the quarks with the 27 particles is smallest and the mass ratio of the DER photon space with the 1 massless photon is largest. Therefore, the mass ratios of DER, DMs, leptons and quarks are inversely proportional to the particle numbers of DER, DMs, leptons and quarks as the first assumption. This simple rule is called as the universe mass ratio golden rule in Fig. 12. This simple rule is successfully applied to the observed mass ratios of the Planck and WMAP missions. The best particle number combination (1, 3, 9, 27) of the four components (DER, DMs, Leptons, Quarks) to explain the Planck 2018 and WMAP results is the same as the particle number combination (1, 3, 9, 27) of the 3-dimensional quantized space model. The calculated mass ratios of DER, DMs, leptons and quarks are 67.5 %, 22.5 %, 7.5 % and 2.5 %, respectively. And the calculated mass ratios of neutrinos and ordinary matters are 5.0 % and 5.0 %, respectively. The mass ratios of the dark energy (68.47(23) %) and matters (31.53(23) %) obtained from the Planck 2018 results are consistent with the calculated mass ratios of the DER (67.5 %) and matters (32.5 %). The mass ratio of the dark energy (72.1(15) %) obtained from the WMAP 9 year results is explained as the summed mass ratio (72.5 %) of DER (67.5 %) and neutrinos (5.0 %). The universe evolution including the super-massive black holes (SMBHs) is shown in Fig. 4. The accelerated space expansion of our universe requires the addition of the new dark energy. If this new dark energy is added, the mass ratio of the dark energy is a little bit increased. The difference (0.97 %) between the observed value (68.47(23) %) and calculated value (67.5 %) is explained by adding the new dark energy in Figs. 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. The corrected mass ratios of DER, DMs, leptons and quarks are 68.47 %, 21.8286 %, 7.2762 % and 2.4254 %, respectively. The corrected mass ratios of the neutrinos (called as cosmic background neutrinos) and ordinary matters (OMs) are 4.8508 % and 4.8508 %, respectively. These corrected mass ratios can explain the mass ratios obtained from the WMAP and Planck missions. In other words, the mass ratios calculated from the best particle number combination support the elementary particles, dark matters and dark energy (photon space) proposed by the three-dimensional quantized space model based on the 10-D Euclidean space.

At INFN-LNS, and in collaboration with the ATOMKI laboratories, an innovative multi-diagnostic system with advanced analytical methods has been designed and implemented. This is based on several detectors and techniques (Optical Emission Spectroscopy, RF systems, Interfero-polarimetry, X-ray detectors) and here we focus on high resolution spatially-resolved X-ray spectroscopy, performed by means of a X-ray pin-hole camera setup operating in the 0.5−20 keV energy domain. The diagnostic system was installed at a 14 GHz Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) ion source (ATOMKI, Debrecen), enabling high precision X-ray spectrally-resolved imaging of ECR plasmas heated by hundreds of Watts. The achieved spatial and energy resolution were 0.5 mm and 300 eV at 8 keV, respectively. We here present the innovative analysis algorithm that we properly developed for obtaining Single Photon-Counted (SPhC) images providing the local plasma emitted spectrum in a High-Dynamic-Range (HDR) mode, by distinguishing fluorescence lines of the materials of the plasma chamber (Ti, Ta) from plasma (Ar). This method allows a quantitative characterization of warm electrons population in the plasma (and its 2D distribution) which are the most important for ionization, and also to estimate local plasma density and spectral temperatures. The developed post-processing analysis is also able to remove the readout noise, that is often observable at very low exposure times (msec). The setup is now under update including fast shutters and trigger systems in order to allow simultaneously space and time-resolved plasma spectroscopy during transients, stable and turbulent regimes.

Space-time evolution of our universe is explained by using the 3-dimensional quantized space model (TQSM) based on the 4-dimensional (4-D) Euclidean space. The energy (E = cDtDV), charges and energy density (|q| = r = cDt) and absolute time (ct) are newly defined based on the 4-D Euclidean space. The photon flat space with the constant energy density of r = cDt_q is proposed as the dark energy (DE). The dark energy is separated into the n DE and photon DE which create the new photon spaces with the constant energy density of r = cDt_q. The v DE is from the n pair production by the CPT symmetry and the photon DE is from the photon space pair production by the T symmetry. The vacuum energy crisis and Hubble’s constant puzzle are explained by the photon space with the n DE and photon DE. The big bang and inflation of the primary black hole is connected to the accelerated space expansion and big collapse of the photon space through the universe evolution. The big bang from the nothing is the pair production of the matter universe with the positive energy and the partner anti-matter universe with the negative energy from the CPT symmetry. Our universe is the matter universe with the negative charges of electric charge (EC), lepton charge (LC) and color charge (CC). This first universe is made of dark matter -, lepton -, and quark - primary black holes with the huge negative charges which cause the Coulomb repulsive forces much bigger than the gravitational forces. The huge Coulomb forces induce the inflation of the primary black holes, that decay to the super-massive black holes and particles.

Ultraviolet light incident on organic material can initiate its spontaneous dissipative structuring into chromophores which can catalyze their own replication. This may have been the case for one of the most ancient of all chromophores dissipating the Archean UVC photon flux, the nucleic acids. Oligos of nucleic acids with affinity to particular amino acids which foment UVC photon dissipation would have been selected through non-equilibrium thermodynamic imperatives which favor entropy production. Indeed, we show here that those amino acids with characteristics most relevant to fomenting UVC photon dissipation are precisely those with greatest chemical affinity to their codons or anticodons. Entropy production could thus provide an explanation for the accumulation of information in nucleic acids relevant to the dissipation of the externally imposed thermodynamic potentials. The accumulation of information in this manner provides a link between evolution and entropy production.

A revitalized practice of natural philosophy can help people to live a better life and promote a flourishing ecosystem. Such a philosophy is natural in two senses. First, it is natural by seeking to understand the whole of nature, including mental phenomena, In particular, a comprehensive natural philosophy should address the phenomena of sentience by embracing first- and second-person methods of investigation. Moreover, to expand our understanding of the world, natural philosophy should embrace a full panoply of explanations, similar to Aristotle’s four causes. Second, such a philosophy is natural by being grounded in human nature, taking full account of human capacities and limitations. Future natural philosophers should also make use of all human capacities, including emotion and intuition as well as reason and perception, to investigate nature. Finally, since the majority of our brain's activities are unconscious, natural philosophy should explore the unconscious mind with the aim of deepening our relation to the rest of nature and enhancing well-being.

This article lays the foundation for Extended Relativity (ER) – a unified geometric approach to the electromagnetic and gravitational field and relativistic dynamics in them. We explain here the basic tenets of ER, including the influenced spacetime of an object and the Extended Principle of Inertia. These two new ideas enable a unified theory of these fields. We introduce local scaling functions for describing the geometry of a spacetime influenced by a field and construct a simple, universal local scaling function which unifies electromagnetism and gravity. We recover the full electromagnetic theory, including Maxwell’s equations. For gravitation, ER passes all of the tests of General Relativity. Despite the non-linearity of relativistic gravitation, we obtain a method of combining fields from multiple sources. Finally, we identify the differences in the relativistic treatment of the electromagnetic field by Special Relativity and of the gravitational field by General Relativity and indicate how these differences are resolved in ER.

Applying a procedure similar to that of E.S. Bring, by using a 4^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation, it was possible to transform the Bring-Jerrard normal quintic (BJQ) equation into a De Moivre form (DMQ), so that it could be solved by radicals. The general solution by radicals of the De Moivre equations of any degree is presented. By the same procedure the BJSx (normal sextic) equation was taken to another one without the 2^nd, 4^th and 6^th terms which was transformed into a cubic (solvable) equation. By applying a 6^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation to the BJSp (normal septic) equation its binormal (without the 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th terms) form was obtained.

Applying a procedure similar to that of E.S. Bring, by using a 4^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation, it was possible to transform the Bring-Jerrard normal quintic (BJQ) equation into a De Moivre form (DMQ), so that it could be solved by radicals. The general solution by radicals of the De Moivre equations of any degree is presented. By the same procedure the BJSx (normal sextic) equation was taken to another one without the 2^nd, 4^th and 6^th terms which was transformed into a cubic (solvable) equation. By applying a 6^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation to the BJSp (normal septic) equation its binormal (without the 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th terms) form was obtained.

Applying a procedure similar to that of E.S. Bring, by using a 4^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation, it was possible to transform the Bring-Jerrard normal quintic (BJQ) equation into a De Moivre form (DMQ), so that it could be solved by radicals. The general solution by radicals of the De Moivre equations of any degree is presented. By the same procedure the BJSx (normal sextic) equation was taken to another one without the 2^nd, 4^th and 6^th terms which was transformed into a cubic (solvable) equation. By applying a 6^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation to the BJSp (normal septic) equation its binormal (without the 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th terms) form was obtained.

Applying a procedure similar to that of E.S. Bring, by using a 4^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation, it was possible to transform the Bring-Jerrard normal quintic (BJQ) equation into a De Moivre form (DMQ), so that it could be solved by radicals. The general solution by radicals of the De Moivre equations of any degree is presented. By the same procedure the BJSx (normal sextic) equation was taken to another one without the 2^nd, 4^th and 6^th terms which was transformed into a cubic (solvable) equation. By applying a 6^th degree Tschirnhaus transformation to the BJSp (normal septic) equation its Bring-Jerrard binormal (without the 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th terms) form was obtained.

Imaginary dimensions in physics require an imaginary set of base Planck units and some negative parameter $c_n$ corresponding to the speed of light in vacuum $c$. The second, negative fine-structure constant $\alpha_2^{-1} \approx -140.178$ present in Fresnel coefficients for the normal incidence of electromagnetic radiation on monolayer graphene leads to the imaginary Planck units. Furthermore, it sets $c_n \approx -3.06 \times 10^8~\text{[m/s]}$. It follows that electric charges are the same in real and imaginary dimensions. Neutron stars and white dwarfs, objects emitting perfect black-body radiation, need energy exceeding their mass-energy equivalence ratios. Complex energies are defined in terms of real and imaginary Planck units. Their imaginary parts, inaccessible for direct observation, store the excess of these energies. It follows that black holes are fundamentally uncharged, charged micro neutron stars and white dwarfs with masses lower than $5.7275 \times 10^{-10}~[\text{kg}]$ are unphysical, and the radii of white dwarfs' cores are limited to $R_{\text{WD}} < 6.7933~G M_{\text{WD}}/c^2$. It is conjectured that the maximum atomic number $Z=238$. A black-body object is in the equilibrium of complex energies of masses, charges, and wavelengths if its radius $R_\text{eq} \approx 2.7665~G M_{\text{BBO}}/c^2$, which corrects the value of the photon sphere radius $R_{\text{ps}}=3G M/c^2$, taking into account the value(s) of the fine-structure constant(s), which is otherwise neglected in general relativity.

It is well known that the photon trajectories follow a curved path in a gravitational field. We explore here the gravitational bending of electric field lines. It seems that the electric field lines of a charge, supported in a gravitational field, follow exactly the trajectories of photons emitted isotropically from a source situated at the charge location. From a detailed examination of the electrostatic field of a charge accelerated uniformly in the instantaneous rest frame, exploiting the strong principle of equivalence, one can determine the bending of the electric field lines of a charge in a gravitational field. The fraction of electric field lines crossing a surface, stationary above or below the charge in the gravitational field, is shown to be exactly similar to the fraction of photon trajectories, emitted from a source placed at the charge location, intersecting that surface. On the other hand, for a freely falling charge in the gravitational field there is no such bending of electric field lines. The field lines continue to extend in radial straight lines from the instantaneous 'present' position of the charge, as do the trajectories of photons streaming away from the instantaneous position of a freely falling source in the gravitational field. The electric field configuration of a freely falling charge in the gravitational field is shown to be exactly the same as that of a charge moving uniformly in an inertial frame with velocity equal to the instantaneous ``present'' velocity of the freely falling charge.

This paper offers a novel geometric and visual approach to the renowned Four Color Map Theorem and K5 non-planarity problem while unveiling their profound connection to the "kissing number" problem in 2D. We represent planar graphs through circles and tangents, simplifying complex structures and shedding light on these classic problems. Our proofs by contradiction, rooted in the kissing number concept, reveal that both the Four Color Map Theorem and K5 non-planarity are fundamentally linked, as they pivot around the concept of coloring. This study bridges the realms of geometry and graph theory, providing fresh insights and emphasizing the significance of the kissing number problem in various fields.

We delve into nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics within a background magnetic field, ensuring gauge invariance via a vector potential. Our exploration extends to the Lagrangian, which incorporates electron self-interactions and electromagnetic field interactions. Through the path integral formalism, we elucidate the effective action, with a specific focus on the photon propagator and screening effects. Examining density and current components reveals Laurent expansions in the hydrodynamic limit. The equations of motion in real space are derived, leading to discussions on phenomena such as Poiseuille-like flow and the Navier-Stokes equation. To ground our theoretical framework at practical contexts, we consider applications such as the fluid dynamics at binary star systems. Depending on the velocity of the expelled fluid, our analysis allows for both nonrelativistic and relativistic treatments, providing a versatile tool for understanding the intricacies of fluid behavior at astrophysical scenarios. Additionally, we recognize that at the presence of a magnetic field, magnetohydrodynamics becomes crucial. While our current focus is at nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics, the insights gained here contribute to a broader understanding, offering a comprehensive foundation for quantum electrodynamics analysis at diverse physical systems.