The radiation stability of polymer test objects fabricated by direct laser writing is studied. The two groups of 6 cubes (50×50×50 μm3) were printed on a common silicon substrate. 6 cubes were irradiated with X-rays in the synchrotron radiation beam (12 keV, 1010 photons/mm2/s), the other 6 kept non-irradiated for the reference. In each group, the fabrication parameters (laser power and slicing step) were uniformly varied from cube to cube. Each irradiated cube was exposed with the dose of 1013 X-ray photons. The calibration of this dose in the radiological units (Gy) was carried out using the tissue-equivalent thermoluminescent detectors (TLD-800). The corresponding exposition dose was estimated as 30 kGy for each cube. The radiation effects were evaluated by Raman spectroscopy and by morphological changes observed with the raster electron microscope. The primary radiation effect appears in the essential increase of the polymerization degree with consuming carbon-carbon double bonds in favor of the polymer cross-linking. Only one cube of 6 has changed the size and shape due to this effect, while the others retained the initial shape. Morphological changes are connected with the improper fabrication parameters (laser power and slicing step). Properly fabricated objects withstand the X-rays of the synchrotron radiation beam.

Laser direct writing allows for the fabrication of complex structures, which is particularly advantageous in micro-optic applications. However, the increasing demand for optics quality requires the lowest optical power loss, which can occur from unwanted reflections. This research demonstrates the possibility of forming an anti-reflective coating on hybrid-polymer micro-lenses fabricated by employing laser direct writing (LDW), without changing their geometry. Such coating deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) decreased the reflection from 3.3 % to 0.1 % at the wavelength of 633 nm for one surface of SZ2080™.

Pattern recognition techniques form the heart of most, if not all, incoherent linear shift-invariant systems. When an object is recorded using a camera, the object information gets sampled by the point spread function (PSF) of the system, replacing every object point with the PSF in the sensor. The PSF is a sharp Kronecker Delta-like function when the numerical aperture (NA) is large with no aberrations. When the NA is small, and the system has aberrations, the PSF appears blurred. In the above case, if the PSF is known, then the object information can be obtained by scanning the PSF over the recorded object intensity pattern and looking for pattern matching conditions through a mathematical process called correlation. In this study, a recently developed deconvolution method, the Lucy-Richardson-Rosen algorithm (LR2A), has been implemented to computationally refocus images recorded in the presence of spatio-spectral aberrations. The performance of LR2A was compared against the Lucy-Richardson algorithm and non-linear reconstruction. LR2A exhibits a superior deconvolution capability even in extreme cases of spatio-spectral aberrations and blur. Experimental results of deblurring a picture captured using high-resolution smartphone cameras are presented. LR2A was implemented to significantly improve the performances of the widely used deep convolutional neural networks for image classification.

Phase imaging of biochemical samples has been demonstrated for the first time at the Infrared Microspectroscopy (IRM) beamline of the Australian Synchrotron using the usually discarded Near-IR (NIR) region of the synchrotron-IR beam. The synchrotron-IR beam at the Australian Synchrotron IRM beamline has a unique fork shaped intensity distribution as a result of the gold coated extraction mirror shape, which includes a central slit for rejection of the intense X-ray beam. The resulting beam configuration makes any imaging task challenging. For intensity imaging, the fork shaped beam is usually tightly focused to a point on the sample plane followed by a pixel-by-pixel scanning approach to record the image. In this study, a pinhole was aligned with one of the lobes of the fork shaped beam and the Airy diffraction pattern was used to illuminate biochemical samples. The diffracted light from the samples was captured using a NIR sensitive lensless camera. A rapid phase-retrieval algorithm was applied to the recorded intensity distributions to reconstruct the phase information corresponding to different planes. The preliminary results are promising to develop multimodal imaging capabilities at the IRM beamline of the Australian Synchrotron.

Advanced image processing will be crucial for emerging technologies such as autonomous driving, where the requirement to quickly recognize and classify objects under rapidly changing, poor visibility environments in real time will be needed. Photonic technologies will be key for next-generation signal and information processing, due to their wide bandwidths of 10’s of Terahertz and versatility. Here, we demonstrate broadband real time analog image and video processing with an ultrahigh bandwidth photonic processor that is highly versatile and reconfigurable. It is capable of massively parallel processing over 10,000 video signals simultaneously in real time, performing key functions needed for object recognition, such as edge enhancement and detection. Our system, based on a soliton crystal Kerr optical micro-comb with a 49GHz spacing with >90 wavelengths in the C-band, is highly versatile, performing different functions without changing the physical hardware. These results highlight the potential for photonic processing based on Kerr microcombs for chip-scale fully programmable high-speed real time video processing for next generation technologies.

The paper discusses the design and modeling of a simple and illustrative hardware kit for teaching the basics of quantum cryptography to engineering students. The novel solution differs from those already on the market in that it is focused on familiarising trainees with the physical principles of quantum key distribution, as well as with the basics of mathematical formalism in quantum mechanics. This is achieved by using a minimally sufficient set of optical elements with a simple mathematical description in the Jones formalism. This composition of the kit is targeted mostly at engineering students and does not require advanced training in physics as a prerequisite. The configurable architecture of the hardware educational kit contributes to the deeper involvement of students. By independently changing the modular configuration of the system, students can conduct experiments that were not directly provided by the developers. For instance, students can assess the impact of choosing the basic settings of phase retarders on the course of a man-in-the-middle attack. The proposed amount of mathematical and informational support, as well as ready-made formal models, is sufficient to reasonably put forward hypotheses for experimental verification and interpret the obtained empirical data. At this moment, the hardware kit is being replicated, distributed and successfully applied at universities and companies in the communications industry. The accumulated experience of educational use testifies to the high efficiency of the kit as a tool for basic QKD training for people without prior knowledge of quantum mechanics. A discrete event model simulating the operation of the hardware kit is implemented in the non-commercial modeling software CPN Tools and is openly distributed.

We have shown that according to the predictions of the standard quantum theory, signaling is possible using a postponed compensation Hong-Ou-Mandel interferometer, although it violates Lorentz invariance. We argue that new physics is required to deal with such a paradox. Either quantum principles or relativity needs reassessment. We propose an experiment that can decide whether relativity rules over quantum or vice versa.

A refractive lens is one of the simplest, cost-effective and easily available imaging elements. With a spatially incoherent illumination, a refractive lens can faithfully map every object point to an image point in the sensor plane, when the object and image distances satisfy the imaging conditions. However, static imaging is limited to the depth of focus, beyond which the point-to-point mapping can be only obtained by changing either the location of the lens or the imaging sensor. In this study, the depth of focus of a refractive lens in static mode has been expanded using a recently developed computational reconstruction method, Lucy-Richardson-Rosen algorithm (LRRA). The technique consists of three steps. In this first step, the point spread functions (PSFs) were recorded along different depths and stored in the computer as PSF library. In the next step, the object intensity distribution was recorded. The LRRA was then applied to deconvolve the object information from the recorded intensity distributions in the final step. The results of LRRA were compared against two well-known reconstruction methods namely Lucy-Richardson algorithm and non-linear reconstruction.

A pilot study on laser 3D printing of inorganic free-form micro-optics is experimentally validated. Ultrafast laser nanolithography is employed for structuring hybrid organic-inorganic material SZ2080TM followed by high-temperature calcination post-processing. The combination allows production of 3D architectures and the heat-treatment results in converting the material to inorganic substance. The produced miniature optical elements are characterized and their optical performance demonstrated. Finally, the concept is validated for manufacturing compound optical components such as stacked lenses. This is opening for new directions and applications of laser made microoptics under harsh conditions such as high intensity radiation, temperature, acidic environment, pressure variations, which include open space, astrophotonics, and remote sensing.

A new optical steganography scheme is proposed that transmits a stealth optical code-division multiple-access (OCDMA) signal through a public binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) channel. Polarization beam splitters and arrayed waveguide gratings are used to implement a spectral-polarization coding (SPC) system with an incoherent optical source. We employ a Walsh–Hadamard code as the signature code of the user who wants to transmit stealth information using the system. A free space optical link applied to this system maintains the polarization states of light during propagation. The secret data is extracted using correlation detection and balanced subtraction in the OCDMA decoder of the intended receiver, and the other signal from the public channel is reduced by the OCDMA decoder. At the demodulator of the public channel, BPSK demodulation eliminates the stealth signal so that the public channel is not affected by the stealth signal. The two signals cannot interfere with each other. The results of this study show that our proposed optical steganography system is highly secure. The stealth signal can be favorably hidden in the public channel when the average source power of the stealth signal, public noise, and public signal are −5, −3, and 0 dBm, respectively.

We report on the use of quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) for multi-gas detection. Photo-acoustic (PA) spectra of mixtures of water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) were measured in the mid-infrared (MIR) wavelength range using a MIR (mid-infrared) optical parametric oscillator (OPO) light source. Highly overlapping absorption spectra is a common challenge for gas spectroscopy. To mitigate this, we use a partial least-squares regression (PLS) method to estimate the mixing ratio and concentrations of the individual gasses. The concentration range explored in the analysis varies from a few parts-per-million (ppm) to thousands of ppm. Spectra obtained from HITRAN and experimental single-molecule reference spectra of each of the molecular species were acquired and used as training data sets. These spectra were used to generate simulated spectra of the gas mixtures (linear combinations of the reference spectra). Here in this proof-of-concept experiment we demonstrate that after an absolute calibration of the QEPAS cell, the PLS analyses could be used to determine concentrations of single molecular species with a relative accuracy within a few % for mixtures of H2O, NH3 and CH4 and with an absolute sensitivity of approximately 300(±50) ppm/V, 50(±5) ppm/V and 5(±2) ppm/V for water, ammonia and methane, respectively. Thus, demonstrating that QEPAS assisted by PLS is a powerful approach to estimate concentrations of individual gas components with considerable spectral overlap, which is a typical scenario for real-life adoptions and applications.

This article presents answers to the questions on superresolution and structured illumination microscopy as raised in the editorial of a recent publication [K. Prakash et al. arXiv, 2102.13649, 2021]. The answers are based on my personal views on superresolution in light microscopy, supported by reasoning. Discussed are the definition of superresolution, Abbe’s resolution limit and the classification of superresolution methods into non-linear-, prior-knowledge- and near-field-based superresolution. A further focus is put on capabilities and technical aspects of present and future structured illumination microscopy (SIM) methods.

The interaction of electrons with strong laser fields is usually treated with semiclassical theory, where the laser is represented by an external field. There are analytic solutions for the free electron wave functions, which incorporate the interaction with the laser field exactly, but the joint effect of the atomic binding potential presents an obstacle for the analysis. Moreover, the radiation is a dynamical system, the number of photons changes during the interactions. Thus, it is legitimate to ask how can one treat the high order processes nonperturbatively, in such a way that the electron-atom interaction and the quantized nature of radiation be simultaneously taken into account? An analytic method is proposed to answer this question in the framework of nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics. As an application, a quantum optical generalization of the strong-field Kramers-Heisenberg formula is derived for describing high-harmonic generation. Our formalism is suitable to analyse, among various quantal effects, the possible role of arbitrary photon statistics of the incoming field. The present paper is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Dr. Fritz Ehlotzky, who had significantly contributed to the theory of strong-field phenomena over many decades.

Scattering resonances play a crucial role in understanding wave behavior in various physical systems. While significant progress has been made in analyzing resonances in high-contrast and nonlinear media, a general characterization of resonances in small, high-contrast nonlinear media with the Kerr effect, particularly in layered configurations, has remained an open problem. In this paper, we present a novel asymptotic approach that addresses this gap by providing an approximation for resonances in terms of material properties, geometry, and nonlinearity. Our results offer new insights into the dependence of resonances on these factors, particularly for complex multilayered structures, making this the first general characterization of its kind.

Gas bubbles present in liquids underpin many natural phenomena and human-developed technologies that improve the quality of life. Since all living organisms are predominantly made of water, they may also contain gas bubbles—introduced both naturally and artificially—that can serve as biomechanical sensors operating in hard-to-reach places inside a living body and emitting signals that can be detected by common equipment used in ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging procedures. This kind of biosensors is the focus of the present article, where we critically review the emergent sensing technologies based on acoustically driven oscillations of gas bubbles in liquids and bodily fluids. This review is intended for a broad biosensing community and transdisciplinary researchers translating novel ideas from theory to experiment and then to practice. To this end, all discussions in this review are written in a language that is accessible to non-experts in specific fields of acoustics, fluid dynamics and acousto-optics.

Indirect imaging methods involve at least two steps, namely optical recording, and computational reconstruction. The optical recording process uses an optical modulator that transforms the light from the object into a typical intensity distribution. This distribution is numerically processed to reconstruct the object’s image corresponding to different spatial and spectral dimensions. There have been numerous optical modulation functions and reconstruction methods developed in the past years for different applications. In most cases, a compatible pair of optical modulation function and reconstruction method gives optimal performance. A new reconstruction method termed non-linear reconstruction (NLR) was developed in 2017 to reconstruct the object image in the case of optical scattering modulators. During the years, it was revealed that the NLR could reconstruct an object’s image modulated by an axicons, bifocal lenses and even exotic spiral diffractive elements, which generate deterministic optical fields. Apparently, NLR seems to be a universal reconstruction method for indirect imaging. In this review, the performance of NLR has been investigated for many deterministic and stochastic optical fields. Simulation and experimental results for different cases are presented and discussed.

Emission, propagation, and reflection of light as mechanical phenomena in inertial frames are based on the behavior of balls at the limit when their mass is zero. The kinematics of massless balls is like that of balls with mass. Light as a wave or particle is a massless entity. Therefore, it is natural to apply the kinematics of the massless balls to light. Consequently, the kinematics of light depends on its kinetics of electromagnetic nature and its kinematics of mechanical nature in its interactions of emission and reflection with the matter. The study of the physics phenomena in the frame at absolute rest includes those in the inertial frames. Considering this and applying the emission, propagation, and reflection of light as mechanical phenomena in the vacuum of the frame at absolute rest, this study derives formulas for the speed of the wavefront of a ray of light reflected by a fixed and moving mirror when the light comes from a fixed and moving source. The derived formulas apply to the modified Michelson interferometer, employed independently by R. Tomaschek and D. C. Miller in their experiments.

Derivation of light paths in the Michelson interferometer is based on the hypothesis that the speed of light does not change after reflection by a mirror in motion. The Michelson-Morley experiment predicts a fringe shift of 0.40. The same fringe shift is predicted for a particular Michelson interferometer in which the beam splitter of the interferometer makes an angle of 45° with the direction of light from the source. Light behaves like a wave and also as a particle. Thus, it is reasonable to consider the reflection of light as a mechanical phenomenon. With this hypothesis, the speed of light changes after reflection, and the predicted fringe shift for the particular Michelson interferometer is zero which is in accordance with the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Apparently, light travels in any inertial frame as if this particular interferometer belongs to a fixed frame. The velocity of light is considered independent of the velocity of its source, which is in accordance with astronomers’ observations of the binary stars, and the experiment performed at CERN, Geneva, in 1964.

The study of coherent vortices remains an urgent field of singular optics of vortex beams. In this paper, coherent properties of partially coherent vortex Bessel—Gaussian optical beams propagating through a uniform medium (free space) or a turbulent atmosphere are examined theoretically. The consideration is based on analytical solution of the equation for the transverse second-order mutual coherence function of the field of a partially coherent optical radiation in a turbulent atmosphere. For the partially coherent Bessel—Gaussian beam, the second-order mutual coherence function of the source field is taken as a Gaussian Shell-model. In this approximation, we analyze the behavior of the coherence degree and the integral coherence scale of these beams as a function of the propagation pathlength, propagation conditions, and beam parameters, such as the radius of the Gauss factor of the beam, parameter of the Bessel factor of the beam, topological charge, and correlation width of the source field of partially coherent radiation. In addition, the integral coherence scale of the partially coherent vortex Bessel—Gaussian beam is compared with that of the partially coherent Gaussian beam. It is found that as a partially coherent vortex Bessel—Gaussian beam propagates through a turbulent atmosphere, there appear not two (as might be expected: one due to atmospheric turbulence and another due to partial coherence of the source field), but only one ring dislocation of the coherence degree (due to the simultaneous effect of both these factors on the optical radiation). In addition, it is shown that the dislocation of the coherence degree that affects significantly the beam coherence level is formed only for beams, for which the coherence width of the source field is larger than the diameter of the first Fresnel zone.

Recognition, decoding and tracking of vortex patterns is of increasing importance in many fields reaching from astronomical observation of distant galaxies to turbulence phenomena in liquids or gases. Currently, coherent light beams with orbital angular momentum (OAM) are of particular interest for optical communication, metrology, micro-machining or particle manipulation. One common task is to identify characteristic spiral patterns in pixelated intensity maps at real-world signal-to-noise ratios. Recently, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was applied to the quantitative analysis of spiral interference patterns of OAM beams. Our study considers this approach in more detail. It is demonstrated that specific information can be extracted by combining conformal mapping by polar transform with determining one- or two-dimensional angular frequency spectra either in spatially fixed or scanning mode. Results of proof-of-principle experiments are presented.

This article presents a concise survey of basic discrete and semi-discrete nonlinear models which produce two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) solitons, and a summary of main theoretical and experimental results obtained for such solitons. The models are based on the discrete nonlinear Schrödinger (DNLS) equations and their generalizations, such as a system of discrete Gross-Pitaevskii (GP) equations with the Lee-Huang-Yang corrections, the 2D Salerno model (SM), DNLS equations with long-range dipole-dipole and quadrupole-quadrupole interactions, a system of coupled discrete equations for the second-harmonic generation with the quadratic (χ⁽²⁾) nonlinearity, a 2D DNLS equation with a superlattice modulation opening mini-gaps, a discretized NLS equation with rotation, a DNLS coupler and its PT-symmetric version, a system of DNLS equations for the spin-orbit-coupled (SOC) binary Bose-Einstein condensate, and others. The article presents a review of basic species of multidimensional discrete modes, including fundamental and vortex solitons, their bound states, gap solitons populating mini-gaps, symmetric and asymmetric solitons in the conservative and PT-symmetric couplers, cuspons in the 2D SM, discrete SOC solitons of the semi-vortex and mixed-mode types, 3D discrete skyrmions, and some others.

Spatial-structured longitudinal light beams are optical fields sculpted in three-dimensional (3D) space by diffractive optical elements. These beams have been recently suggested for use in im-proving several imaging capabilities, such as 3D imaging, enhancing image resolution, engineering the depth of field, and sectioning 3D scenes. All these imaging tasks are performed using coded aperture correlation holography systems. Each system designed for a specific application is characterized by a point spread function of a different spatial-structured longitudinal light beam. This article reviews the topic of applying certain structured light beams for optical imaging.

Laser Direct Writing (LDW), also known as 3D multi-photon laser lithography of resins, is a promising technique for fabricating complex free-form elements, including micro-optical functional components. Regular organic or hybrid (organic-inorganic) resins are often used, with latter exhibiting better optical characteristics, as well as having the option to be heat-treated into inorganic glass-like structures, particularly useful for resilient micro-optics. While this work is a continuation of SZ2080™ calcination development , the Laser-Induced Damage Threshold (LIDT) of such sol-gel-derived glass micro-structures, particularly those that undergo heat treatment, has not been well-characterized. In this pilot study, we investigated the LIDT using the Series-on-One (S-on-1) protocol of functional micro-lenses produced via LDW and subsequently calcinated. Our results demonstrate that the LIDT can be significantly increased, even multiple times, by this approach, thus enhancing the resilience and usefulness of these free-form micro-optics. This work represents the first investigation in terms of LIDT into the impact of calcination on LDW produced sol-gel-derived glass micro-structures, and provides important insights for the development of robust micro-optical devices.

The application of non-uniform spiral gratings to control structure, topological parameters and propagation of orbital angular momentum (OAM) beams was studied experimentally with coherent near-infrared light. Adapted digital spiral grating structures were programmed into the phase map of a high-resolution liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulator (LCoS-SLM). It is shown that characteristic spatio-spectral anomalies related to Gouy phase shift can be used as pointers to quantify rotational beam properties. Depending on sign and gradient of spatially variable periods of chirped spiral gratings (CSG), variations of rotation angle and angular velocity as a function of propagation distance were measured. Propagation-dependent self-torque is introduced in analogy to known local self-torque phenomena of OAM beams as obtained by the superposition of temporally chirped or phase modulated wavepackets.

Terahertz tomography is a promising method among non-destructive inspection techniques to detect faults and defects in dielectric samples. Image quality recently significantly improved through the incorporation of a priori information and off-axis data. However, this improvement has come at the cost of increased measurement time. To aim toward industrial applications, it is therefore necessary to speed up the measurement by parallelizing the data acquisition employing multi-channel setups. In this work, we present two tomographic frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) systems working at a bandwidth of 230-320 GHz, equipped with an eight-channel detector array, and compare their imaging results with a single-pixel setup. While in the first system, the additional channels are used exclusively to detect radiation refracted by the sample, the second system features an f-θ lens, focusing the beam at different positions on its flat focal plane, and thus utilizing the whole detector array directly. The usage of the f-θ lens in combination with a scanning mirror eliminates the necessity of the formerly used slow translation of a single-pixel transmitter. This opens up the potential for a significant increase in acquisition speed, in our case by a factor of four to five, respectively.

The monitoring of sick newborns is a challenging task that health care providers in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU) must contend with each day. Conventionally, newborns are monitored via probes that are affixed to their skin and attached to processing monitors (Fig.1). However, an alternative exists in contactless imaging to record such physiological signals (Physio-Markers), surface changes and internal structures which can be used independently of, or in conjunction with conventional monitors. Advantages of contactless monitoring methods include: i) quick data generation; ii) lack of contact with skin, which reduces skin breakdown and decreases risk of infection; and iii) minimizing the number of probes and monitors affixed to the skin, which allows greater body surface-area for other care. This paper is an attempt to build a foundation for and to provide a vision of the potential neonatal clinical applications of technologies that use non-contact modalities such as Visible Light Imaging (VLI), Near InfraRed Spectrum (NIRS), and Thermal Imaging (TI) using InfraRed Spectrum (IRS).

Frequency combs (FCs)—spectra containing equidistant coherent peaks—have enabled researchers and engineers to measure the frequencies of complex signals with high precision thereby revolutionising the areas of sensing, metrology and communications and also benefiting the fundamental science. Although mostly optical FCs have found widespread applications thus far, in general FCs can be generated using waves other than light. Here, we review and summarise recent achievements in the emergent field of acoustic frequency combs (AFCs) including phononic FCs and relevant acousto-optical, Brillouin light scattering and Faraday wave-based techniques that have enabled the development of phonon lasers, quantum computers and advanced vibration sensors. In particular, our discussion is centred around potential applications of AFCs in precision measurements in various physical, chemical and biological systems in conditions, where using light, and hence optical FCs, faces technical and fundamental limitations, which is, for example, the case in underwater distance measurements and biomedical imaging applications. This review article will also be of interest to readers seeking a discussion of specific theoretical aspects of different classes of AFCs. To that end, we support the mainstream discussion by the results of our original analysis and numerical simulations that can be used to design the spectra of AFCs generated using oscillations of gas bubbles in liquids, vibrations of liquid drops and plasmonic enhancement of Brillouin light scattering in metal nanostructures. We also discuss the application of non-toxic room-temperature liquid-metal alloys in the field of AFC generation.

Several problems of radiative transfer are yet unsolved because of the difficulties of the calculations involved in them, especially if the intervening shapes are geometrically complex. The main goal of our investigation in this domain is to convert the formulas that were previously derived, into a graphical interface based on the projected solid-angle principle. Such procedure is now feasible by virtue of several widely diffused programs for Algorithms Aided Design (AAD). Accuracy and reliability of the process is controlled by means of the analytical software DianaX developed at an earlier stage by the authors. With this new approach the often cumbersome procedure of lighting and thermal exchange calculations can be simplified and made available for the neophyte, with the undeniable advantage of reduced computer time.

The optical complexity of coastal waters is mostly caused by the water discharged from land carrying optical components (such as dissolved and particulate matter) into coastal bays and estuaries, and increasing the attenuation of light. This paper aims to investigate the links between in-water optical properties in four Swedish bays (from the northern Baltic proper up to the Bothnian bay) and the land use and land cover (LULC) and the hydrology in the respective catchment of each bay. The optical properties were measured in situ over the last two decades by various research and monitoring groups while the LULC in each bay was classified using the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service based on Landsat 8 and Sentinel-3 data. The absorption coefficient of coloured dissolve organic matter at 440 nm, aCDOM (440), and its spectral slope factor, SCDOM, were mostly correlated to natural land cover classes (Wetland, Meadow) acting as sources of CDOM, while Agricultural and Urban classes seem to act as sinks. The Agricultural class was also found to be a sink for suspended particulate organic matter (SPOM) whilst Coniferous and Mixed Forests as well as Meadows acted as a sources. SPOM seems to mostly originate from Natural classes, possibly due to the release of pollen and other organic matter. Overall, the methods applied here allow for a better understanding of effects of land used and land cover on the bio-optical properties, and thus coastal water quality, on a macroscopic scale.

The use of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (i.e., LASERs or lasers) by the U.S. Department of Defense is not new and includes laser weapons guidance, laser-aided measurements, even lasers as weapons (e.g., Airborne Laser). Lasers in support of telecommunications is also not new. The use of laser light in fiber optics shattered thoughts on communications bandwidth and throughput. Even the use of lasers in space is no longer new. Lasers are being used for satellite-to-satellite crosslinking. Laser communication can transmit orders-of-magnitude more data using orders-of-magnitude less power and can do so with minimal risk of exposure to the sending and receiving terminals. What is new is using lasers as the uplink and downlink between the terrestrial segment and the space segment of satellite systems. More so, the use of lasers to transmit and receive data between moving terrestrial segments (e.g., ships at sea, airplanes in flight) and geosynchronous satellites is burgeoning. This manuscript examines the technological maturation of employing lasers as the signal carrier for satellite communications linking terrestrial and space systems. The purpose of the manuscript is to develop key performance parameters (KPPs) to inform U.S. Department of Defense initial capabilities documents (ICDs) for near-future satellite acquisition and development. By appreciating the history and technological challenges of employing lasers rather than traditional radio frequency sources for satellite uplink and downlink signal carrier, this manuscript recommends ways for the U.S. Department of Defense to employ lasers to transmit and receive high bandwidth, large-throughput data from moving platforms that need to retain low probabilities of detection, intercept, and exploitation (e.g., carrier battle group transiting to a hostile area of operations, unmanned aerial vehicle collecting over adversary areas). The manuscript also intends to identify commercial sector early-adopter fields and those fields likely to adapt to laser employment for transmission and receipt.

The study of the emission, propagation, and reflection of balls in Newtonian mechanics, applying the laws of conservation of momentum and energy when the mass of the balls converges to zero, concludes that the kinematics of light are like those of massless balls. The kinematics of light explain why the speed of light is the constant c in each inertial frame in which the light source and reflective mirror are at rest, why the laws of physics have the same form in each inertial frame, and why any light experiment in an inertial frame cannot prove the motion of that inertial frame. The following law of mechanics governs the kinematics of balls and electromagnetic radiation: Each inertial frame drags at its velocity the balls and electromagnetic radiation emitted by bodies at rest in that inertial frame. The theory of special relativity misapplies the symmetry observed in phenomena to two inertial frames; therefore, it duplicates a physical phenomenon from one inertial frame, which is considered stationary, into another. There are multiple issues rooted in Lorentz's and Einstein's transformations. For example, transformations offer the speed of light at the constant c in the moving and opposite directions of the inertial frame. At the same time, it is variable in any other direction, converging to infinity. Time contraction in the moving direction of the inertial frame is different from time dilation in the opposite direction. It requires a ruler and time synchronization in each direction. There are no length contractions in Lorentz's and Einstein's transformations to support the fundamental concept of length contraction in special relativity. With these unacceptable conclusions, the theory of special relativity is self-negating.