Physical Sciences

Abstract: The quantum measurement problem is often stated as a cluster of puzzles: the preferred basis, the vanishing of interference, the occurrence of definite outcomes, and Born statistics. We argue that unitary quantum mechanics resolves this cluster into exactly two irreducible premises, and we prove two theorems that locate them. The first is an ignorance no-go theorem: environmental ignorance cannot play the role that microstate ignorance plays in classical statistical mechanics. By linearity, the branch amplitudes of the post-measurement state are invariant across all environmental initial conditions and across all admissible dynamics—the environment’s self-interactions, its internal couplings, and its couplings to system and apparatus—so no appeal to what we do not know can generate single-outcome randomness; by the no-hiding theorem, even complete retrieval of the information the environment carries leaves the randomness untouched. The second is a conditional definiteness theorem: given only the premise that perception supervenes on branch-relative memory states, unitary dynamics entails that every internal observer records exactly one definite outcome, cannot record indefiniteness, cannot verify the existence of other branches, provably agrees with every observer in her branch, and records Born-distributed frequencies in norm-typical branches. Together the theorems show that everything in the measurement problem is settled by theorem except a psychophysical supervenience premise and a probability-measure premise. Extant solutions—Everettian, hidden-variable, collapse, and selection-rule approaches—are then classified, exhaustively, by what each must add beyond the theorems.

Abstract: The experimental test of the CHSH inequality confirms the quantum-mechanically predicted perfect correlation between two spatially separated photons. By interpreting the correlation non-locally as the so-called entanglement, Bell's theorem denies the existence of definite polarizations possessed by photons in the absence of measurement. The denial amounts to refuting Einstein's argument for defending his local-realist world view based on his separability principle and his ensemble interpretation of ψ-functions in the Einstein-Bohr debate on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. This paper shows that Bell's theorem is incorrect and presents an explanation of the correlation based on Einstein's argument. The correlation is deterministic. A formal analysis supporting Einstein's explanation is also presented.

Abstract: Quantum entanglement describes correlated quantum states where measuring one particle affects the outcome of another, regardless of distance. A major vulnerability of entangled states is that their subsystems lack distinct local identities (that is, maximally entangled states cannot be factored), leaving the whole composite system highly susceptible to decoherence. By factorizing these states creates a protective barrier that prevents local noise or measurements in one subsystem from corrupting the rest of the system. This paper introduces an auxiliary parameter method that uses semi-structured complex numbers to create (1) an unphysical auxiliary parameter k_n and (2) a unique j-conjugate framework to embed maximally entangled systems in semi-structured state space and factorize them into independent single-qubit product states. To demonstrate this method the maximally entangled Bell States was completely factorized. This paper proves that these factorizations strictly satisfy classical local realism, passing the Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt (CHSH) inequality test whilst in semi-structured state space. Finally, an inverse transformation maps these auxiliary terms back to zero, recovering the original standard Euclidean quantum states. This framework provides a novel algebraic tool for manipulating maximally entangled states as formal tensor product states.

Abstract: A recently proposed local measurement axiom (Postulate M) replaces the instantaneous global projection of textbook quantum mechanics with branch selection triggered by completed local decoherence, while a companion ψ-ontic analysis identifies continuous spontaneous localization (CSL) as a concrete local mechanism for the selection itself. Here we test this two-stage account quantitatively in the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) scenario. We integrate the nonlinear CSL stochastic Schrödinger equation for an entangled spin pair in which one particle couples to a local spin bath with random couplings, bath self-dynamics, and intra-bath interactions, while the noise field and collapse operator act only at the measurement site. Analytically, we derive an exact law for the maximal Clauser–Horne–Shimony–Holt (CHSH) value under local decoherence, \( S_{\max}(t)=2\sqrt{1+\sin^{2}(2\theta)\,|z(t)|^{2}} \), with z(t) the decoherence factor and θ the entanglement angle: the CHSH excess over the classical bound is consumed, never the measurement-basis probabilities, which are exactly conserved. We further show that the selection stage is governed by an exact martingale: the branch weight obeys a scalar Itô equation whose derivation requires only the orthogonality of the branches—supplied by the spin structure, not by the environment—so the Born rule emerges as an absorption probability irrespective of the residual bath coherence. Numerically, the law holds to machine precision (∼ 10⁻¹⁵) for all three bath classes, including interacting environments, and through finite-size recurrences; stochastic trajectories confirm Born statistics to within sampling error, with all realizations fully resolved. The ensemble-averaged reduced state of the distant particle is invariant under the local collapse-operator axis and rate—parameter independence as a structural theorem, verified to machine precision in the unitary sector—and branch amplitudes are invariant across all environmental initial conditions and dynamics (∼ 10⁻¹¹), confirming that outcome randomness is not of environmental origin. In the symmetric configuration, with independent noises at both wings, the two local noises provably drive a single global branch martingale at the summed rate: selection is one joint event whose absorbing states are the correlated branches—mismatched outcomes are dynamically excluded (zero events in 300 realizations, against ∼ 25% each for a product-state control)—the joint statistics are invariant under swapping which wing completes first (93% vs 9% orderings, distributions equal within sampling error), and sampled outcomes reproduce the singlet’s measurement correlation E(β) = − cos β—with β the angle between Alice’s and Bob’s measurement axes—including a CHSH value |S| = 2.710±0.073, consistent with the Tsirelson bound 2√2 within sampling errors. Decoherence and local stochastic selection jointly reproduce the empirical content of quantum measurement in the EPR scenario with no nonlocal dynamical element: the only nonclassical resource is the nonseparability of the initial state. Nonlocal projection is thus dispensable not only axiomatically and ontologically but operationally.

Abstract: We present a unified thermodynamic framework in which the flow of quantum information — described covariantly by the entropy current vector s^μ-- couples to fermionic matter and simultaneously provides the microphysical origin of spacetime geometry. The Dirac equation is modified as (iℏγ^μ ∂_μ-mc+λγ^μ s_μ)ψ=0, where dimensional analysis identifies λ as a coupling constant of mass dimension [λ]=-2, naturally placing the theory as a low-energy effective field theory. The modified dispersion relation E=-λs^0 c±c√(p^2+m^2 c^2 ) shows that uniform entropy flow produces only an overall energy shift, while non-uniform flows induce a complete gauge-like structure in the non-relativistic limit: the spatial entropy current s acts as a vector potential, and its curl generates an effective magnetic field B_eff=(λ/m)∇×s, driving spin precession via ω_entropy=(λ/m)∇×s. Extending the Proca-type dynamics of s^μ to curved spacetime with non-minimal curvature coupling, we quantize the entropy flow field and integrate out its quantum fluctuations. In this framework, the Einstein-Hilbert action emerges as the low-energy effective action, with Newton's constant Gdetermined by the entropy field's vacuum expectation value. The linearized theory yields a massive spin-2 excitation -- the emergent graviton -- with dispersion E^2=p^2+m_s^2, where the entropy field mass m_s is constrained by LIGO/Virgo gravitational-wave observations to m_s≲10^(-20)eV. Using STAR data on Λ hyperon global spin polarization in heavy-ion collisions, we estimate λ∼10^(-7)-10^(-5) GeV^(-2), corresponding to an entropy-flow energy scale Λ_λ∼10^2-10^3GeV. This framework naturally connects to Jacobson's thermodynamic gravity, Verlinde's entropic gravity, and the generalized second law ∇_μ s^μ≥0, providing a quantum-information theoretic foundation for the emergence of spacetime and a concrete, testable realization of gravity as an entropic phenomenon.

Abstract: Quantum uncertainty and wavefunction collapse remain among the most conceptually unresolved aspects of microscopic physics. Here, we investigate whether uncertainty and collapse-like electron localization may admit a complementary thermodynamic interpretation through recursive entropy-field dynamics. The electron is modeled as a dynamically evolving entropy field–geometry composed of structural, electromagnetic, and thermal entropy components maintained through continuous recursive interaction with the surrounding vacuum entropy field. Within this framework, uncertainty emerges from incomplete temporal accessibility to rapidly evolving recursive electron configurations occurring beneath experimentally accessible timescales. Repeated recursive phase sampling naturally produces probabilistic measurement statistics and approximately Gaussian localization statistics. Electron–photon interaction is further modeled through phase-matched recursive entropy coupling, where repeated entropy transfer progressively reorganizes the electron entropy geometry toward localization. Numerical simulations reproduce finite-width Dirac-delta-like localization behavior, localization saturation after a finite number of recursive cycles, and intrinsically nonzero collapse timescales, with a lower bound of approximately 3.2×10⁻²⁰ s for an electron at rest under ideal recursive coupling. These results suggest that wavefunction collapse may emerge as a finite recursive thermodynamic localization process rather than an instantaneous state projection. The framework further provides a qualitative thermodynamic interpretation that relates normalized recursive accessibility to Born probability, discusses recursive entropy evolution as a possible physical basis for intrinsic quantum timescales, and outlines how Bell-type correlations may emerge within an extended recursive entropy framework. Together, these results establish a phenomenological foundation for recursive entropy dynamics underlying quantum uncertainty and localization while providing experimentally testable predictions and a systematic roadmap for future quantitative development.

Abstract: We propose least surprisal as an inferential principle for recovering physical laws. Just as least action selects a history given a Lagrangian, accumulated surprisal selects the Lagrangian given a displacement from a reference.

Abstract: P-Theory (Planckian Crystallization Theory - PCT) proposes a comprehensive framework for discussing fundamental problems in quantum mechanics and cosmology based on a minimal five-dimensional extension, in which the fifth dimension is interpreted as world time T , orthogonal to four-dimensional spacetime. The central idea is to describe physical reality as a process of becoming, governed by an order parameter Φ(T ) and a two-stage crystallization dynamics: stochastic inception and subsequent deterministic drift. Within Stage-1 (current level), P-Theory proposes a mechanism from which, under five conditions P1–P5 (following from axioms A1–A8), Born’s Rule emerges as a conditional theorem via ergodic averaging; the detailed five-step derivation and verification of the absence of logical circularity are provided in the monograph [1], §4.2–4.3. The universal temperature dependence of decoherence τdecoh ∝ T−1 is derived from the structure of two-stage crystallization and serves as a testable prediction (tests F1–F3, 2026–2031). The P-Theory mechanism also enables the formulation of a series of testable consequences for cosmology and particle physics. The article presents preliminary numerical results of Stage-1 for the cosmological constant Λ, the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon (g − 2)μ, and the stability of the physical vacuum, as well as indicates pathways for their independent verification through molecular interferometry, cosmological data, and KK-spectrum analysis. Detailed derivations and calculations belong to the Stage-1 monograph materials [1]; here we provide their overview and physical interpretation.Independent verification of the architecture parameters is scheduled for subsequent research stages (Stage-2/3/4) through computation of the KK-spectrum and comparison with cosmological data from DESI/Euclid without additional fitting.

Abstract: This work demonstrates that quantum kinematics—characterized by a system's probability density or wavefunction—inherently encodes the underlying dynamics governing its temporal evolution. We show that these quantum dynamical underpinnings can be systematically uncovered through the direct quantum inversion of probability densities measured across a well-prepared, pure, ground-state ensemble. If multiple density and potential functions fit the data and survive the framework’s statistical screening, spectroscopic studies of excited states resolve the deadlock unambiguously. This study highlights the prospect of discovering and formulating physical laws directly within the quantum framework, bypassing the historical reliance on classical physics to supply potential energy functions. Furthermore, this direct inversion approach is uniquely suited for modeling purely quantum systems that lack macroscopic classical counterparts. Finally, we validate the practical application, viability, and physical implications of this framework using several synthetic and analytical examples.

Abstract: This work investigates and compares the weak inversion behavior and drain-induced barrier lowering (DIBL) of conventional Gate-All- Around (GAA) MOSFETs and the recently proposed Gate-All-Inside-and-Around (GAIA) devices from room temperature down to deep cryogenic conditions ( 5 K). A physics-based electrostatic and transport framework is developed to analyze short-channel effects in the subthreshold regime, where cryogenic operation significantly modifies carrier statistics, threshold voltage, and subthreshold slope. Results show that while both architectures benefit from improved electrostatic control compared to planar devices, GAIA MOSFETs exhibit a systematically reduced DIBL over the entire temperature range due to an additional insulating barrier that weakens drain-to- channel electrostatic coupling. At cryogenic temperatures, DIBL is found to be primarily governed by electrostatic effects rather than thermally activated transport, remaining nearly constant over a broad temperature range before exhibiting a moderate increase below approximately 30 K. A compact analytical model is proposed, capturing the combined effects of geometry and temperature phenomena on DIBL and subthreshold conduction. The results provide new insights into the role of device architecture in mitigating short-channel effects in cryogenic CMOS technologies for quantum and ultra-low- power applications.

Abstract: We develop an operationally anchored route from the invariant rest-mass Compton wavelength to a modified quantum kinematics at the Planck boundary. The empirical core is a two-channel determination. First, a macroscopic source is assigned an aggregated reduced rest-Compton wavelength without using its kilogram mass or a tabulated \(\hbar\): the electron Compton scale is obtained from Compton scattering, nucleon scales from measured cyclotron-frequency ratios, and the source scale from constituent counting with composition and binding-energy corrections. Second, the source's geometrized mass \(r_g=GM/c^2\) is inferred from a gravitational experiment without separately inserting \(G\). The identity \(r_g=\ell_{\mathrm P}^2/\bar\lambda_M\) then gives \(\ell_{\mathrm P}=\sqrt{r_g\bar\lambda_M}\). Agreement across sources, compositions, and gravitational protocols is proposed as a direct test of the Planck--Compton organization of gravity. This test alone verifies an operational relation, not the microscopic ontology. We further hypothesize that gravity is the macroscopic record of Planck-mass collision events and that \(\eta=\ell_{\mathrm P}/\bar\lambda_C=\omega_Ct_{\mathrm P}\) is their Planck-time occupation weight. At \(\eta=1\), Haug's maximum-velocity law gives \(v_{\max}=0\); if this is an outcome-support bound, the Planck event has definite zero momentum and occupies one definite relational Planck cell. We therefore propose \([X,P]=i\hbar(I-\Pi_{\mathrm P})\) and \(\Delta X\Delta P\ge(\hbar/2)|1-q|\). Ordinary matter retains canonical uncertainty, while the Planck-event sector permits certainty. The result is not presented as a completed quantum-gravity theory, but as a testable metrological foundation and a mathematically explicit route toward one.

Abstract: Therole played by irreversible processes, at the microscopic scale, in several examples of quantum measurements is studied within a “minimally realist” interpretation of the quantum formalism introduced in J. Gea-Banacloche, APS Open Sci. 1, 000039 (2026). The analysis extends and confirms the basic results of the earlier work: separation of the collapse and amplification phases of the measurement, and decoherence and collapse happening already as a consequence of irreversible microscopic processes at the level of the “probe” itself (typically an atom in the examples considered). Additionally, the proposed interpretation of the formalism is shown to be consistent with previous interpretations, and a case for true irreversibility in physics is argued in some detail.

Abstract: Bell statistics determine setting-conditioned one-trial behavior, but they do not generally determine the joint law of an ordered record. We formalize this gap with exact one-trial fibers, which contain sequential processes with the same complete marginal Bell behavior and different cross-trial dependence. We distinguish three components of the acquisition architecture. Sampling geometry controls trial order and lag support. Observation and admission rules control trial identity. Programmed context controls measurement coordinates such as analyzer phase. For equatorial GHZ measurements, we construct an explicit local proper-subset dressing whose latent branches remain in one exact fiber. The sharp directional amplitude cap is the simplex-positivity facet |ε| ≤ 1 − V under a fixed sign convention. We separate first-order mean maps from second-order covariance maps, derive a Gaussian working-model sensitivity score, and construct an anytime-valid e-process under predictable conditional symmetry. Authenticated analyses of NIST, Delft, Weihs, AlmostDI, and ETH records provide protocol-specific sensitivity calculations, admission checks, pairing decompositions, contrast diagnostics, and held-out model comparisons. Controlled experiments on one IBM Marrakesh QPU provide internally frozen and self-blinded implementation benchmarks. IBM-1 recovers injected hidden-state and line structure. IBM-2 recovers programmed phases and predicts held-out co-located CHSH witnesses. Post hoc analyses show that a one-parameter visibility model explains the aligned witness and find no familywise rejection of phase-conditioned setting independence. The results establish model- and architecture-dependent identifiability. They do not alter Bell bounds, establish spacelike nonlocality on the IBM device, or identify an autonomous hardware clock.

Abstract: Counter-diabatic Shortcut to Adiabaticity (CDSTA) has been explored in implementing qudit quantum Fourier transforms (QFT) via stimulated Raman adiabatic passage (STIRAP) to suppress non-adiabatic leakage. While direct CD driving may introduce unwanted global microwave couplings, seeking an approach without explicit CD fields is highly desirable. By employing rotating-frame absorption, we implement an all-optical STA strategy to synthesize the QFT. Our systematic comparison of qubit and quartit encodings across Average Gate Fidelity, peak amplitude, and energy cost elucidates the practical advantages brought by qudit architecture and CD driving, demonstrating an acceleration factor of at least 7. Furthermore, we extend our evaluation to open quantum systems. Based on the trade-off analysis, optimized parameters are selected, revealing that the all-optical strategy maintains significant advantages against amplitude noise, pure dephasing, and spontaneous emission, improving robustness against infidelity by an order of magnitude.

Abstract: Gravity changes clock rates, and the free point-particle action converts proper-duration differences into relative phase. Coherence lost to an unresolved duration difference can be recovered only through a correlated physical record and a conditional correction. I derive an exact ceiling on that recovery. For a uniform phase window of width \( 0<\Theta\leq2\pi \) and a record retaining M classical values, \( \mathcal V\leq sinc(\Theta/(2M)) \), attained by equal phase bins. The physical question is what fixes M. I take it to be set by the record interface. With n readable binary lines of which at most \( S_\star \) can be asserted together, the reachable codebook has at most \( \sum_{j=0}^{S_\star}\binom nj \) words, so \( \mathcal V\leq sinc\!\left(\frac{\Theta}{2\sum_{j=0}^{S_\star}\binom nj}\right), \) and the coherence deficit falls as \( n^{-2S_\star} \) rather than \( 4^{−n} \). Two cases fix \( S_\star \) by physics rather than by design. A single-quantum position probe of the apparatus coordinate is weight-one by particle number, giving \( \mathcal V\leq sinc(\pi/n) \) at one full cycle and 0.9745 for eight detectors. A peak-assertion budget of \( S_\star \) lines sets the exponent rather than the prefactor. For held or guided branches with matched velocity histories in a weak uniform field, \( \Theta=mgT\Delta z/\hbar \), and a calibrated layer-time count in a static spacetime has rate \( r=\nu N \), so gravity, the count, quantum phase, record interface, and recovered coherence occur in one operational chain. I state a complete record channel and a protocol that leaves the interfering particle undisturbed.

Abstract: Entanglement swapping is the cornerstone of quantum networks,while quantum information masking is a method to ensure data privacy. The combination of the two can open new perspectives for ensuring information security in quantum network environments. In this paper, we study entanglement swapping with information masking. We consider the entanglement swapping that combines several quantum information masking methods, including the entanglement swapping of two-particle entangled states and multi-particle ones. Based on our previous work [2025, arXiv, 2009.02555v11], we derive the entanglement swapping formulas. Besides, we put forward some hypotheses about observers, which, although not the main focus of this paper, can inspire people to rethink quantum mechanics phenomena and the relationship between humans and nature.

Abstract: We develop a geometric and operationally explicit construction of correspondence rules (Bopp operators) for s-parametrized Stratonovich–Weyl phase-space symbols associated with symmetric irreducible representations of SU(d). Our main result is an intertwining procedure showing that all s-ordered Bopp operators are generated from the Husimi rules by applying continuous powers of the intertwining operator Υλ(L²). This is illustrated with the cases of SU(2) and SU(3). We show that, unlike the SU(2) case where the rules reduce to first-order vector fields, higher-rank SU(d) systems exhibit genuine higher-order differential contributions. This approach avoids cumbersome group-theoretical calculations, gives a transparent geometric interpretation of the phase-space map, and extends and complements results beyond spin systems.

Abstract: The measurand considered in this work is the Planck length, \( \ell_{\mathrm P} \). The circularity objection surrounding the Planck units has a long history: Bridgman argued in 1922 that no physical significance should be attached to their particular magnitudes until an essential connection among gravitation, the velocity of light, and the quantum had been established; Cohen stated the circularity explicitly in 1987 by noting that a Planck mass calculated from G cannot then be used to determine G independently. Variants of this objection have persisted to the present day. This paper claims that the circle can now be broken. We develop a measurement model in which \( \ell_{\mathrm P} \) is inferred directly from the response of a torsion balance and from a non-gravitational determination of the inertial content of an isotopically enriched \( {}^{28}\mathrm{Si} \) source body. The source mass is represented by an aggregate reduced Compton wavelength constructed from measured photon wavelengths, cyclotron-frequency ratios, silicon lattice spacing, crystal volume, isotope composition, and material corrections. The resulting measurement equation contains neither G nor \( \hbar \) as independent input quantities. We specify the measurand, traceability routes, sensitivity coefficients, covariance terms, and principal systematic corrections. The proposed procedure is not intended to improve upon the numerical uncertainty of the CODATA value of \( \ell_{\mathrm P} \), conventionally inferred from G, \( \hbar \), and c; its significance is operational and methodological, because it provides an independent realization of the Planck length and thereby resolves the long-standing circularity objection.

Abstract: We had previously shown [T. Yarman et al., Results Phys. 10 (2018) 818–821] that the classical adiabatic relation pV ^5/3=Constant for an ideal monatomic gas admits a direct quantum-mechanical formulation in terms of Planck’s constant and confinement-dependent quantum-state indices. This result suggests that macroscopic thermodynamic scaling laws reflect an underlying quantum-state structure. In the present work, we revisit this quantum-state scaling framework and discuss how it may provide a complementary language for thermodynamic accessibility and macroscopic irreversibility. In particular, we emphasize the conceptual distinction between microscopic reversibility, the arrow of time, and operational macroscopic irreversibility. Within this perspective, irreversibility may be interpreted in terms of asymmetries in accessible quantum-state configurations under changing confinement and energy conditions, while the underlying microscopic equations remain formally time-reversal symmetric. At the same time, the concept of operationally inaccessible microscopic quantum reconstruction, such as that with regards to fission, naturally emerges. Still, we do not claim to replace Boltzmannian, correlation-based, or information-theoretic approaches. Rather, the present study proposes a complementary quantum-state scaling perspective for discussing thermodynamic accessibility and the macroscopic evolution of complex systems. Even so, within the present framework, these practical limitations on thermodynamic accessibility do not necessitate a breakdown of formal microscopic reversibility; rather, they align with the Boltzmannian view that macroscopic reversals remain formally possible yet are rendered overwhelmingly inaccessible in practice.

Abstract: We present a simulation with two isolated computers (“Alice” and “Bob”) generating coincident events with independently randomized measurement settings. The underlying model is fully deterministic and yields CHSH violations up to S ≈ 3, despite satisfying the operational requirements of loophole-free Bell experiments. The effect arises from a system of mutually exclusive observables combined with a protocol for handling missing detections. Surprisingly, injecting random values can strengthen rather than suppress observed violations, especially in the case of measurement-induced counter-correlations. Furthermore, we argue that pairwise measurements with alternative settings impose a monogamy-like constraint on quantum event structures. Predicted Bell violations, though natural in such systems, cannot be observed without correcting displaced events.