Early experience with Covid-19 shows that vaccines can be the most effective way of preventing the spread of infection. However, vaccine hesitancy is among the most significant hurdles in preventing the spread of novel infections. Monkeypox (MPX) has already been declared a global health emergency by WHO. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the MPX vaccine willingness in various population groups. In this cross-sectional study, an online survey was conducted among Saudi healthcare workers (HCWs) to understand the monkeypox vaccine willingness in healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia. Saudi has already confirmed multiple MPX cases, and thus it is essential to initiate timely protective measures, including vaccination. The study had 743 respondents. The study found that among Saudi HCWs, 52.7% were willing to receive the MPX vaccine. The study found that sociodemographic factors had a small impact on vaccine willingness. However, early experience with vaccination had a significant impact. Thus, more than 70% who had influenza or COVID-19 vaccine were willing to receive the MPX vaccine. Some of the most significant concerns influencing vaccine acceptability were the safety and efficacy of the vaccine. Hence, it is strongly recommended to focus on disseminating information regarding the safety and efficacy of the MPX vaccine.

After the appearance of first cases of ‘pneumonia of unknown origin’ in the Wuhan city, China, during late 2019, the disease progressed fast. Its cause was identified as a novel coronavirus, named provisionally 2019-nCoV. Subsequently, an official name was given as SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2) by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) study group. The World Health Organization (WHO) named the Coronavirus disease-2019 as COVID-19. The epidemics of COVID-2019 have been recorded over 113 countries/territories/areas apart from China and filched more than 4292 humans, affecting severely around 1,18,326 cases in a short span. The status of COVID-2019 emergency revised by the WHO within 42 days from Public Health International Emergency (January 30, 2020) to a pandemic (March 11, 2020). Nonetheless, the case fatality rate (CFR) of the current epidemic is on the rise (between 2-4%), relatively is lower than the previous SARS-CoV (2002/2003) and MERS-CoV (2012) outbreaks. Even though investigations are on its way, the researchers across the globe have assumptions of animal-origin of current SARS-CoV-2. A recent case report provides evidence of mild COVID-2019 infection in a pet dog that acquired COVID-2019 infection from his owner in Hong Kong. The news on travellers associated spread across the globe have also put many countries on alert with the cancellation of tourist visa to all affected countries and postponement of events where international visits were required. A few diagnostic approaches, including quantitative and differential real-time polymerase chain reaction assays, have been recommended for the screening of the individuals at risk. In the absence of any selective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, re-purposed drugs are advocated in many studies. This article discourse the current worldwide situation of COVID-2019 with information on virus, epidemiology, host, the role of animals, effective diagnosis, therapeutics, preventive and control approaches making people aware on the disease outcomes.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by a novel coronavirus named Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome - Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), emerged in early December 2019 in China and attained a pandemic situation worldwide by its rapid spread to nearly 167 countries with 287.239 confirmed cases and 11.921 human deaths with a case fatality rate (CFR) of around 4 per cent. Bats were considered as the reservoir host, and the search of a probable intermediate host is still going on. Animals have anticipated culprit of SARS-CoV-2 as of now. The disease is mainly manifested by pneumonia and related respiratory signs and symptoms, but the involvement of the gastrointestinal system and nervous system is also suggested. The severe form of the disease associated with death is mainly reported in older and immune-compromised patients with pre-existing disease history. Death in severe cases is attributed to respiratory failure associated with hyperinflammation. Cytokine storm syndrome associated with rampant inflammation in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection is considered as the leading killer of COVID-19 patients. COVID-19 patients were reported with higher levels of many pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines like IFN-g, IL-1b, IP-10, and MCP-1. Furthermore, severe cases of COVID-19 revealed higher levels of TNF-α, G-CSF, and MIP-1A. Blood profile of the COVID-19 patients exhibits lymphopenia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia and RNAaemia along with increased levels of aspartate aminotransferase. SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant women does not lead to fetus mortalities unlike other zoonotic coronaviruses like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, with no evidence of intrauterine transmission to neonates. Rapid and confirmatory diagnostics have been developed, and high efforts are being made to develop effective vaccines and therapeutics. In the absence of any virus-specific therapeutic, internationally health care authorities are recommending adoption of effective prevention and control measures to counter and contain this pandemic virus. This paper is an overview of this virus and the disease with a particular focus on SARS-COV-2 / COVID-19 clinical pathology, pathogenesis and immunopathology along with a few recent research developments.

The risk of 'zoonotic spillovers,' or the transmission of viruses from animals to humans, has been raised by climate change and the devastation of nature, as infectious disease experts have long warned. Even as the world works to stop the spread of the currently unfolding pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the breakout of monkeypox virus (MPXV), a new animal virus, the Langya henipavirus (LayV), has been discovered in humans in Eastern China. The scientists say there is little danger of the virus spreading among humans, but it shares genetic material with Hendra virus and Nipah virus, two other henipaviruses that infect humans and cause life-threatening respiratory diseases. Humans infected with LayV can expect to experience high body temperature, cough, weariness, poor appetite, muscle discomfort, myalgia, nausea and vomiting. It is likely that the virus will spread from animals to humans. Currently, the health authorities of Taiwan and other health organizations are tracking the progress of the ailment to ensure it does not reach humans. Researchers have examined 25 species of small wild animals for presence of the virus, and so far, shrews are the only ones that have tested positive for the virus's RNA. Based on these results, shrews are a possible candidate for the virus's natural reservoir. Too far, no therapies or vaccines have been developed and licensed for henipaviruses like the LayV. When other therapies fail to alleviate viral infections, ribavirin may be the next best thing. The need for novel vaccinations against the LayV infection and the timely delivery of these vaccines to areas at high epidemiological risk is real. To lessen the likelihood of a health calamity being caused by this newly developing virus, it is crucial to conduct active surveillance in a transparent and globally collaborative manner. The questions that have not been answered yet require additional study.

Introduction: Coronaviruses are zoonotic viruses that include human epidemic pathogens such as the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome virus (MERS-CoV), and the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome virus (SARS-CoV), among others (e.g., COVID-19, the recently emerging coronavirus disease). The role of animals as potential reservoirs for such pathogens remains an unanswered question. No systematic reviews have been published on this topic to date. Methods: We performed a systematic literature review with meta-analysis, using three databases to assess MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV infection in animals and its diagnosis by serological and molecular tests. We performed a random-effects model meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval (95%CI). Results: 6,493articles were retrieved (1960-2019). After screening by abstract/title, 50 articles were selected for full-text assessment. Of them, 42 were finally included for qualitative and quantitative analyses. From a total of 34 studies (n=20,896 animals), the pool prevalence by RT-PCR for MERS-CoV was 7.2% (95%CI 5.6-8.7%), with 97.3% occurring in camels, in which pool prevalence was 10.3% (95%CI 8.3-12.3). Qatar was the country with the highest MERS-CoV RT-PCR pool prevalence, 32.6% (95%CI 4.8-60.4%). From 5 studies and 2,618 animals, for SARS-CoV, the RT-PCR pool prevalence was 2.3% (95%CI 1.3-3.3). Of those, 38.35% were reported on bats, in which the pool prevalence was 14.1% (95%CI0.0-44.6%). Discussion: A considerable proportion of infected animals tested positive, particularly by nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT). This essential condition highlights the relevance of individual animals as reservoirs of MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV. In this meta-analysis, camels and bats were found to be positive by RT-PCR in over 10% of the cases for both; thus, suggesting their relevance in the maintenance of wild zoonotic transmission.

A novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), causing an emerging coronavirus disease (COVID-19), first detected in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China has resulted in an outbreak in China which has taken a catastrophic turn with high toll rates in China and subsequently spreading across the globe. The rapid spread of this virus to more than 175 countries while affecting nearly 500,000 persons and causing more than 22,000 human deaths, it has resulted in a pandemic situation in the world. The SARS-CoV-2 virus belongs to the genus Betacoronavirus, like MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, all of which originated in bats. It is highly contagious, causing symptoms like fever, dyspnea, asthenia and pneumonia, thrombocytopenia and the severely infected patients succumb to the disease. Coronaviruses (CoVs) among all known RNA viruses have the largest genomes ranging from 26 to 32 kb in length. Extensive research has been conducted to understand the molecular basis of the SARS-CoV-2 infection and evolution, develop effective therapeutics, antiviral drugs and vaccines, and to design rapid and confirmatory viral diagnostics as well as adopt appropriate prevention and control strategies. Till date, no clinically proclaimed, proven therapeutic antibodies or specific drugs and therapeutics, and vaccines have turned up. Several molecular diagnostic tests such as Real Time-PCR, isothermal loop-mediated amplification of coronavirus (i-LACO), full genome analysis by next-generation sequencing (NGS), multiplex nucleic acid amplification, and microarray-based assays are in use currently for the laboratory confirmation of this CoV infection. In this review article, we describe the basic molecular organization and phylogenetic analysis of the coronaviruses, including the SARS-CoV-2, and recent advances in diagnosis and vaccine development in brief and focusing mainly on developing potential therapeutic options that can be explored to manage this pandemic virus infection, which would help in valid countering of COVID-19.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome - Coronavirus-2) of the family Coronaviridae, appeared in Wuhan, Hubei province, China being its epicenter in December 2019. This disease was declared as posing Public Health International Emergency by World Health Organization on January 30, 2020, attained the status of a very high-risk category on February 29, and now having a pandemic status (March 11, 2020). COVID-19 has presently spread to more than 195 countries/territories while killing nearly 19,600 humans out of cumulative confirmed cases accounting to more than 430,000 within a short period of just a few weeks. The majority of deaths have been reported in Italy and China. Researchers worldwide are pacing with high efforts to counter the spread of this virus and to design effective vaccines and therapeutics/drugs. Few of the studies have shown the potential of animal-human interface and zoonotic links in the origin of SARS-CoV-2. Exploring the possible zoonosis and revealing the factors responsible for its initial transmission from animals to humans will pave ways to design and implement effective preventive and control strategies to counter COVID-19. The present review presents an overview of COVID-19 and the causative virus SARS-CoV-2, with particular emphasis on the role of animals and their jumping the cross-species barriers, experiences learned from SARS- and MERS-CoVs, zoonotic links, and spillover events, transmission to humans and rapid spread., highlighting in very brief the preventive and control measures along with a few of the recent research developments to counter this pandemic virus/disease.

Lassa fever, commonly known as Lassa hemorrhagic fever (LHF), is one of the progressive illnesses invading a large population of two to three million individuals in West Africa. The infection transmitted through the rodents severely impacts the local population and the medical professionals in surrounding areas, which were also the primary target of LHF. In epidemic areas, Lassa fever causes a public health threat since it poses a significant morbidity and fatality Case rate (CFR) ≥ 50%). The disease is widespread in West Africa and has developed into one of the most common and life-threatening viral hemorrhagic fevers. Monitoring and preventing persistent disease outbreaks has been challenging in affected regions due to insufficient healthcare facilities, diagnostics labs, care centers, and low socioeconomic conditions. An absence of public awareness and the emergence of an ecological niche is advantageous for the survival and multiplication of the mouse (Mastomys natalensis) inhabiting the Lassa virus serving as the disease's natural host and reservoir. The current review focuses on early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, highlighting the immediate requirement of clinically approved vaccines for LHF, causing preventative and control actions more difficult in the present era.

Monkeypox virus infection is a recognized public health emergency. Little research has been done on treatment options for this disease. Until recently, there was not a single published work describing the usage of specific drugs in human patients with monkeypox virus infection. This paper gives the first bibliometric analysis of monkeypox treatment options based on data available on PubMed and Scopus. It also reviews the specific drugs used in the treatment of monkeypox. That includes data on Tecovirimat, Cidofovir, Brincidofovir, and Vaccinia Immune Globulin. Tecovirimat is a promising option in progressive disease in terms of efficacy and safety. However, Brincidofovir has been associated with discontinuation of treatment. Cidofovir is also not the preferred drug among physicians. Currently, Tecovirimat can be further used for the management of aggravating cases. More studies should be conducted on Tecovirimat to treat this condition, mainly through controlled trials.

Monkeypox is a rare disease which is rising nowadays in different countries since the first case in the UK was diagnosed on May 6, 2022, by the United Kingdom (UK) Health Security Agency. Then more than 12,500 cases were identified in over 68 countries up to July 18, 2022. In endemic areas, the monkeypox virus (MPXV) is commonly transmitted through zoonosis, while in non-endemic regions, it is spread through human-to-human transmission. Symptoms can include flu-like symptoms, rash, or sores in hands, feet, genitalia, or anus. In addition, people who did not take the smallpox vaccine were more liable to be affected than others. The exact pathogenesis and mechanisms are still unclear; however, most identified cases are reported in men who have sex with other men (MSM). According to the CDC, transmission can happen with any sexual or non-sexual contact with the infected person. However, a recent pooled meta-analysis reported that sexual contact is involved in more than 91% of the cases. Also, it is the first time that semen analysis for many patients has shown positive monkeypox virus DNA. Therefore, in this review, we will describe transmission methods for MPXV while focusing mainly on potential sexual transmission and associated sexually transmitted infections. We will also highlight the preventive measures that can limit the spread of the diseases in this regard.

The technology-driven world of the 21^st century is currently confronted with a major threat to humankind in the form of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of April 22, 2020, COVID-19 has claimed 169, 006 human lives and had spread to over 200 countries with more than 2,471,136 confirmed cases. The perpetually increasing figures associated with COVID-19 are disrupting the social and economic systems globally. The losses are unmatched and significantly higher compared to those from previously encountered pathogenic infections. Previously, two CoVs (SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome-CoV) affected the human population in 2002 and 2012 in China and Saudi Arabia, respectively. Based on genomic similarities, animal-origin CoVs, primarily those infecting bats, civet cats, and pangolins, were presumed to be the source of emerging human CoVs, including the SARS-CoV-2. The cohesive approach amongst virologists, bioinformaticians, big data analysts, epidemiologists, and public health researchers across the globe has delivered high-end viral diagnostics. Similarly, vaccines and therapeutics against COVID-19 are currently in the pipeline for clinical trials. The rapidly evolving and popular technology of artificial intelligence played a major role in confirming and countering the COVID-19 pandemic using digital technologies and mathematical algorithms. In this review, we discuss the noteworthy advancements in the mitigation of the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the etiological viral agent, comparative genomic analysis, population susceptibility, disease epidemiology, animal reservoirs, laboratory animal models, disease transmission, diagnosis using artificial intelligence interventions, therapeutics and vaccines, and disease mitigation measures to combat disease dissemination.

Introduction: An epidemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) begun in December 2019 in China, causing a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Among raised questions, clinical, laboratory, and imaging features have been partially characterized in some observational studies. No systematic reviews have been published on this matter. Methods: We performed a systematic literature review with meta-analysis, using three databases to assess clinical, laboratory, imaging features, and outcomes of COVID-19 confirmed cases. Observational studies, and also case reports, were included and analyzed separately. We performed a random-effects model meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval (95%CI). Results: 660 articles were retrieved (1/1/2020-2/23/2020). After screening by abstract/title, 27 articles were selected for full-text assessment. Of them, 19 were finally included for qualitative and quantitative analyses. Additionally, 39 case report articles were included and analyzed separately. For 656 patients, fever (88.7%, 95%CI 84.5-92.9%), cough (57.6%, 40.8-74.4%) and dyspnea (45.6%, 10.9-80.4%) were the most prevalent manifestations. Among the patients, 20.3% (95%CI 10.0-30.6%) required intensive care unit (ICU), with 32.8% presenting acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (95%CI 13.7-51.8), 6.2% (95%CI 3.1-9.3) with shock and 13.9% (95%CI 6.2-21.5%) of hospitalized patients with fatal outcomes (case fatality rate, CFR).Conclusion: COVID-19 brings a huge burden to healthcare facilities, especially in patients with comorbidities. ICU was required for approximately 20% of polymorbid, COVID-19 infected patients and this group was associated with a CFR of over 13%. As this virus spreads globally, countries need to urgently prepare human resources, infrastructure, and facilities to treat severe COVID-19.

The emergence of the H3N2 influenza virus in 1968 marked a significant event as it crossed the species barrier. Since then, ongoing mutational dynamics have led to the formation of antigenic clusters, prompting the World Health Organization to advocate for regular updates to H3N2 vaccines. Research in the Western Pacific region underscores the necessity for heightened awareness and effective control strategies. Stemming from avian influenza A, the 1968 H3N2 influenza pandemic resulted in the deaths of one million people globally, with its seasonal variants primarily affecting older individuals and causing severe illness due to antigenic drift. To address the challenge of vaccine efficacy against H3N2 mutations, researchers are exploring innovative strategies such as precise antigenic material administration, controlled release patterns, understanding immune system mechanisms, and glycan engineering. This review comprehensively examines various aspects of the Influenza A (H3N2) virus, encompassing its virological characteristics, evolutionary trends, global epidemiology, vaccination strategies, antiviral interventions, and emerging diagnostic approaches. It underscores the impact of antigenic variation on vaccine design and effectiveness, seasonal outbreak patterns, pandemic potential, and the interplay between viral factors and host immune responses. Moreover, the review evaluates antiviral therapies and the issue of drug resistance, emphasising the necessity for multidisciplinary approaches involving researchers, healthcare professionals, and policymakers to comprehend H3N2 and enhance public health interventions.

(1) Background: The monkeypox virus (MPV) is a double-stranded DNA virus belonging to the Poxviridae family, Chordopoxvirinae subfamily, and Or-thopoxvirus genu. It was called monkeypox because it was first discovered in monkeys, in a Danish laboratory, in 1958. However, the actual reservoir for MPV is still unknown. (2) Methods & Results: We have reviewed the existing literature on the options for Monkeypox virus. There are three available vaccines for orthopoxviruses: ACAM2000, JYNNEOS, and LC16, with the first being a replicating vaccine and the latter being non or minimally replicating. (3) Conclusions: Smallpox vaccinations previously provided coincidental im-munity to MPV. ACAM2000(a live‐attenuated replicating vaccine) and JYNNEOS (a live‐attenuated, non-replicating vaccine) are two US FDA‐approved vaccines that can prevent monkeypox. However, ACAM2000 may cause serious side effects, including cardiac problems, whereas JYNNEOS is associated with fewer com-plications. The recent outbreaks across the globe have once again highlighted the need for constant monitoring and the development of novel prophylactic and therapeutic modalities. Based on available data, there is still a need to develop an effective and safe new generation of vaccines specific for monkeypox that are killed or mRNA before monkeypox is declared a pandemic.

Background: Dermatophytosis, commonly known as tinea, poses a significant public health concern worldwide, especially in environments with poor hygiene and overcrowding, such as prisons. Despite its prevalence and impact on quality of life, there is a lack of research on the knowledge and hygiene practices regarding dermatophytosis among prisoners, particularly in Nepal. Objective: The study aimed to assess prisoners' knowledge, hygiene practice and infection status regarding dermatophytosis in Central Prison, Nepal. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study with a sample size of 184 respondents was designed to collect data using a validated pre-tested questionnaire from September 2023 to January 2024. The collected data was then analysed using IBM SPSS version 21. Knowledge and hygiene practices were measured on an eight and 11-point scale and rated as poor (≤4) and sound (>4), bad (≤6), and good (>6), respectively. Summary data were presented by descriptive, while Chi-square and logistic regression were used for inferential statistics at P < 0.05. Results: The findings revealed moderate knowledge among prisoners regarding dermatophytosis, with significant gaps in understanding its spread and prevention. While most prisoners recognised the importance of treatment, there were misconceptions about the inevitability of contracting dermatophytosis and the role of personal hygiene. Conclusions: Despite good knowledge levels, adherence to recommended hygiene practices was suboptimal, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. The study underscores the importance of addressing knowledge gaps, changing attitudes, and promoting hygienic practices to mitigate the burden of dermatophytosis among prisoners.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a single-stranded RNA virus transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, poses a significant global health threat, with severe complications observed in vulnerable populations. The only licensed vaccine, IXCHIQ, approved by the USFDA, is insufficient to address the growing disease burden, particularly in endemic regions lacking herd immunity. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), explicitly targeting structural proteins E1/E2, demonstrate promise in passive transfer studies, with mouse and human-derived mAbs showing protective efficacy. The article explores various vaccine candidates, including live attenuated, killed, nucleic-acid-based (DNA/RNA), virus-like particle, chimeric, subunit, and adenovirus vectored vaccines. RNA vaccines emerge as promising candidates due to their rapid response capabilities and enhanced safety profile. The review underscores the importance of E1 and E2 proteins as immunogens, emphasising their antigenic potential. Several vaccine candidates, such as CHIKV/IRES, measles vector (MV-CHIK), synthetic DNA-encoded antibodies, and mRNA-lipid nanoparticle vaccines, demonstrate encouraging preclinical and clinical study results. In addition to identifying potential molecular targets for antiviral therapy, the study looks into the roles played by Toll-like receptors, RIG-I, and NOD-like receptors in the immune response to CHIKV. It also offers insights into novel tactics and promising vaccine candidates.