Abstract: We present a geometric charge–lattice framework for describing the internal structure of the proton and neutron. In this approach, nucleons are represented as stable 3 × 3 arrangements of discrete positive and negative charge units. The proton corresponds to a lattice containing five positive and four negative charges, reproducing its observed net charge and characteristic size scale. The neutron is described as a closely related charge–rebalanced configuration of the same geometric form. We show that linear projections of these charge lattices naturally generate effective charge patterns consistent with quark–like signatures observed in high–energy scattering experi- ments. Within this interpretation, fractional charge responses arise as geometric averages of integer charge units distributed across the lattice, without requiring independently existing fractional–charge constituents. The charge–lattice representation provides a concrete spatial interpretation of nucleon charge organization that remains compatible with established experimental phenomenology. The framework leads to testable implications for nucleon charge form factors and motivates further investigation through precision scattering and spatial distribution measurements.

Abstract: Physical processes are usually described using four-dimensional vector quantities - coordinate vector, momentum vector, current vector. But at the fundamental level they are characterized by spinors - coordinate spinors, momentum spinors, spinor wave functions. The propagation of fields and their interaction takes place at the spinor level, and since each spinor uniquely corresponds to a certain vector, the results of physical processes appear before us in vector form. For example, the relativistic Schrödinger equation and the Dirac equation are formulated by means of coordinate vectors, momentum vectors and quantum operators corresponding to them. In the Dirac equation a step forward is taken and the wave function is a spinor with complex components, but still coordinates and momentum are vectors. For a closed description of nature using only spinor quantities, it is necessary to have an equation similar to the Dirac equation in which momentum, coordinates and operators are spinors. It is such an equation that is presented in this paper. Using the example of the interaction between an electron and an electromagnetic field, we can see that the spinor equation contains more detailed information about the interaction than the vector equations. This is not new for quantum mechanics, since it describes interactions using complex wave functions, which cannot be observed directly, and only when measured goes to probabilities in the form of squares of the moduli of the wave functions. In the same way spinor quantities are not observable, but they completely determine observable vectors. In Section 2 of the paper, we analyze the quadratic form for an arbitrary four-component complex vector based on Pauli matrices. The form is invariant with respect to Lorentz transformations including any rotations and boosts. The invariance of the form allows us to construct on its basis an equation for a free particle combining the properties of the relativistic wave equation and the Dirac equation. For an electron in the presence of an electromagnetic potential it is shown that taking into account the commutation relations between the momentum and coordinate components allows us to obtain from this equation the known results describing the interactions of the electron spin with the electric and magnetic field. In the presence of a potential the momentum components cease to commute with each other. To neutralize this effect, the Schrödinger equation is supplemented by several equations with mixed partial derivatives on coordinates. In section 3 of the paper this quadratic form is expressed through momentum spinors, which makes it possible to obtain an equation for the spinor wave function in spinor coordinate space by replacing the momentum spinor components by partial derivative operators on the corresponding coordinate spinor component. Section 4 presents a modification of the theory of the path integral, which consists in considering the path integral in the spinor coordinate space. The Lagrangian densities for the scalar field and for the electron field, along with their corresponding propagators, are presented. An equation of motion for the electron is proposed that is relativistically invariant, in contrast to the Dirac equation, which lacks this invariance. This novel equation permitted the construction of an actually invariant procedure for the second quantization of the fermion field in spinor coordinate space. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the field operators are a combination of plane waves in spinor or vector space, with the coefficients of which being pseudospinors or pseudovectors. Each of these pseudovectors or pseudospinors corresponds to one of the particles presented in the theory of electrodynamics. Furthermore, each plane wave possesses an additional coefficient in the form of a creation or annihilation operator. In vector space, these operators commute, whereas in spinor space they anticommutate. The paper presents the spinor and vector representations of the field operators in explicit form, comprising sets of 16 pseudospinors or 4 pseudovectors corresponding to particles represented in electrodynamics. An explicit form of the symmetric traceless tensor with spin two, zero mass and two polarizations is presented, which can serve as a model of the graviton. The results obtained may prompt changes in some aspects of the construction of Feynman diagrams. Among other things, it presents a purely mathematical derivation of Maxwell's inhomogeneous equations without reference to empirical data on the action of electric current, which is usually referred to when deriving equations. Section 4 presents Einstein's inhomogeneous equation, which features the Riemann tensor rather than the Ricci tensor, with the energy-momentum tensor having four indices rather than two.

Abstract: This work presents the \textit{Theory of Spacetime Impedance} (TSI), a phenomenological framework in which the vacuum is modeled as a distributed reactive medium with an effective RLC structure. At the classical level, the vacuum is characterized by the permeability $\mu_0$, the permittivity $\varepsilon_0$, and the impedance $Z_0$, so that the speed of light follows from the vacuum’s constitutive reactive properties. The TSI introduces a reactive--dissipative term $R_H$ as an effective mechanism associated with irreversibility, decoherence, and entropy production, providing a physical basis for the arrow of time. At the quantum level, TSI incorporates a quantum RLC triad associated with the electron, defined by a quantum inductance $L_K$, a quantum capacitance $C_K$, and the von Klitzing resistance $R_K$. When normalized by the Compton wavelength, these quantities admit a direct comparison with $\mu_0$ and $\varepsilon_0$, identifying the fine-structure constant as an impedance scaling factor between classical and quantum regimes. Within this unified reactive picture, inductive, capacitive, and resistive responses are respectively associated with gravitation, electromagnetism, and thermodynamic irreversibility, offering a complementary bridge across quantum, relativistic, and macroscopic domains.

Abstract: New general-relativistic formulations to model an elementary charge are presented, based on an electromagnetic theory of gravity, where the gravity is equivalently expressed as a gradient function of an effective permittivity distribution of the empty space. The metric tensor elements of general relativity are directly related to the effective permittivity function of the empty space, using which the energy density associated with the electric field surrounding the charge is properly defined. The empty space, represented by the equivalent permittivity function, would be fundamentally non-linear, in which case the definition of energy density, as conventionally applied for a linear medium, needs to be corrected. Further, the definition of energy density itself is modified allowing both positive and negative values, such that the total energy remains unchanged while the local values are much stronger, resulting in much stronger local gravitational effects. Solutions for the metric-tensor elements and the resulting energy/mass of the charge particle are studied, based on the Einstein-Maxwell equations with the different new formulations of the energy density and of the associated full stress-energy tensor. The solutions are verified with Schwarzschild and Reissner-Nordstrom metrics, as well as for calculation of light deflection by a massive body, as validation of the general new formulations for the specific reference cases of conventional modeling. Stable solutions for energy/mass are successfully derived for a spherically symmetric, surface distribution of an elementary charge, with specific modified definitions of energy density. A stable solution of the charge with the lowest possible energy/mass is associated with a ''static'' electron without spin. Significance of the new results and formulations, specifically established for the electron, are recognized in relation to the fine-structure constant of quantum electrodynamics, and towards further application of the theory to model other elementary particles and general electrodynamic problems.

Abstract: It is shown that the off-shell renormalization schemes for subtraction of ultraviolet divergences in Quantum Field Theory produce zero for sums of perturbative corrections to physical quantities when all perturbation orders are taken into account. That is the off-shell renor malization schemes are in this sense unphysical. In this connection it is desirable to develop on-shell renormalization schemes for different quantum theories.

Abstract: The cobalt-60 polarized nucleus β-decay experiment conducted by Chien-Shiung Wu's team observed the directional asymmetry in β-decay electron emission with irrefutable data. This phenomenon has long been interpreted as "parity non-conservation in weak interactions" and is considered to have overturned the traditional physics understanding of symmetry. However, the Standard Model requires the introduction of ad hoc concepts such as "weak interaction" and "neutrinos" to explain this phenomenon, resulting in a complex theoretical system lacking unity. This paper provides a systematic reconstruction and explanation of the physical mechanism behind the Wu experiment based on the Great Tao Model. The core innovation lies in clarifying that the "mirror operation" in parity conservation is not a purely geometric mirror image but a complete physical operation incorporating the correlation of physical properties – the mirroring process not only reverses spatial direction but also requires synchronous consideration of the inherent physical characteristics such as particle charge properties and spin momentum field direction. Research indicates that the essence of electron emission directional asymmetry is the direction-specific coupling between the atomic nuclear spin electric momentum field (spin magnetic field) and the β-decay electron electric momentum field, following the spin field interaction principle of "parallel repulsion, anti-parallel attraction." By strictly following the quantitative derivation of key parameters for cobalt-60 nuclei and other nuclides like tritium, carbon-14, and sodium-22 using the Great Tao Model's spin momentum and spin field strength formulas, the derived electron emission asymmetry coefficients show high consistency with experimental data. This study not only provides concise and self-consistent theoretical support for the Wu experiment but also validates the universality and unity of the Great Tao Model as a candidate "theory of everything", restoring the essence of parity conservation law.

Abstract: Over the last few years, we have attempted to develop an \( E_8 \times E_8 \) theory of unification to combine the standard model with general relativity. In the present new work, we give a self-contained construction in which the two extra \( SU(3) \) factors that appear in the maximal subgroup chain \( E_8\supset E_6\times SU(3) \) on each side of \( E_8\times \omega E_8 \) generate: (i) a six-dimensional base \( (M_6,g) \) of signature \( (3,3) \); (ii) two embedded Lorentzian 4D spacetimes; and (iii) per side, a canonical real 4-dimensional internal fibre naturally identified with the tangent of \( \mathbb{C}P^2=SU(3)/S(U(2)\times U(1)) \). The key algebraic ingredient is the octonionic split \( O=H\oplus H\varepsilon \) with \( \varepsilon\perp H \), by which the branch AdjSU(3) →\( \mathbf{3}_0\oplus \mathbf{2}_{+1}\oplus\overline{\mathbf{2}}_{-1}\oplus \mathbf{1}_0 \) is realised as ℑ\( H\oplus (H\varepsilon)_{\mathbb{R}}\oplus R \). The two \( U(1) \) factors play the role of Spin\( ^c \) connections on the \( \mathbb{C}P^2 \) fibres.

Abstract: In this article the relationships are revealed between the views on neutrinos as they show up in various approaches of study. Among these are (a) Fermi’s theory on beta decay, (b) the classical view on the decay of the pion into a muon and a muon neutrino, (c) instrumental attempts for direct measurements of the neutrino’s rest mass like in the KATRIN project, (d) the studies in modern neutrino observatories on the phenomenon of neutrino oscillation and (e) the view on neutrinos in the Structural Model of particle physics. A non-classical kinematic analysis on lab frame decay processes shows that the effective masses of the three neutrinos are the same, although in this respect the comparison with the present data in the PMNS theory is not fully conclusive. Adopting the hypothesis that neutrinos fly at the lab frame speed of pions in free flight, their rest masses have to be set at about 80 meV/c².

Abstract: Traditional electromagnetism quantifies the modulation of electromagnetic fields by media through permittivity (ε) and permeability (μ), yet there remain points worthy of discussion in the explanation of the microscopic mechanism, such as the understanding of vacuum attributes and the essence of the action mechanism. The Theory of Existence Field proposes that fundamental physical quantities (charge/mass) possess an inherent property of diffusing their own physical information into space, and the resulting "existence field" serves as the carrier of physical interaction. Based on the Theory of Existence Field and combined with the Unified Theory of Atomic and Molecular Structure (where the spatial configuration of electron orbitals determines atomic magnetic moment), this paper systematically deduces the microscopic mechanisms of dielectric polarization and magnetization. The research elucidates that the essence of dielectric electromagnetic effects is that an external source existence field transmits physical information to the charges within the medium; the charges respond to the information, generating directional force effects (charge displacement/magnetic moment reorientation), which then form macroscopic effects through the superposition of microscopic existence fields; Permittivity is a quantitative representation of the internal charges' response to external charge information, producing polarization effects, while permeability is a quantitative representation of atoms containing unpaired electron orbitals responding to external magnetic information, producing magnetization effects. Through the deduction using parallel plate capacitor and magnetic medium models, this theory provides a mechanism-clear microscopic explanation for dielectric electromagnetic phenomena, offering a new theoretical framework for related research.

Abstract: We develop Real–Now–Front (RNF) cosmology, a generative framework in which spacetime arises dynamically as an advancing physical present aligns a pre-geometric chronon medium. Chronons are alignment degrees of freedom, not quanta of time; their coherent ordering induces Lorentzian geometry, causal structure, and operational rods and clocks. The dynamics are governed by the Temporal Coherence Principle (TCP), a local alignment and relaxation rule that reconstructs matter patterns and selects a preferred coherence density, so that spacetime symmetries emerge as stable operational properties rather than being postulated. Because each RNF advance encounters a metric-free layer, TCP enforces geometric rescaling to restore coherence, yielding kinematic cosmic expansion without vacuum energy and a local, self-tuning Hubble flow. Under-coherent regions expand, over-coherent regions shrink and collapse, and near-equilibrium regions evolve GR- and FRW-like, with vacuum-dominated regions generically producing late-time acceleration. Chronon microphysics further imposes a universal curvature bound through the Chronon Exclusivity Principle (CEP), leading to finite-density, nonsingular cores with R_core ∝ M^1/3. Small cores (Micro Chronon Condensates) provide a natural cold dark matter candidate, while larger cores reproduce general-relativistic black-hole exteriors with CEP-regulated interiors. RNF cosmology also predicts a mild two-metric structure, yielding small but testable distance–redshift deviations while qualitatively reproducing the large-scale phenomenology of ΛCDM.

Abstract: Gravitational force is extremely important because it dominates the formation and evolution of the universe. However, its physical origin and intrinsic qualities have not been clearly understood for a long time. Certain observed phenomena, along with those newly discovered by the Hubble and James Webb telescopes, cannot be well explained by existing theories. Furthermore, general relativity and quantum mechanics, which are the current mainstream theories explaining gravitational force, are incompatible with each other. This situation strongly points to the need for a better or even novel theory of gravitational force. Here, based on the classical space-time perspective, a different yet robust understanding of gravitational force is introduced. The author has realized that gravitational force originates from none other than the electric force. But it is a synthetic electric force produced by a large number of electric charges, including both of positive and negative charges, and thus shows very different characteristics from a simple electric force caused by either positive or negative charges. In any object, there are a large number of free and inducible net electric charges. Due to various macroscopic and microscopic reasons, the electric charge distribution in any object is non-uniform and directional, since in most cases, the centers of positive and negative charges of this non-uniform distribution cannot be exactly at the same point. Thus, almost any object becomes an electric dipole inherently. When an object exists independently, its dipole direction is randomly oriented, resulting in its overall electrical neutrality statistically. However, when two objects interact, their charge distributions change under the influence of the electric field generated by the opposing object's internal charges. This change intensifies through continuous interactions, eventually aligning dipole directions of two objects along a line. Furthermore, through a dynamically self-calibrating process, the directions of two objects’ dipoles can always point toward each other, regardless of whether the two objects are stationary, moving, or orbiting each other. Therefore, although the force direction of an electric dipole is anisotropic, because the dipole direction, determined by directional non-uniform charge distribution, can change dynamically and quickly, an object’s dipole can always maintain attraction to other object’s dipole, similar to an object exhibiting isotropic attraction to another object. The multiple electric dipoles, or even multiple groups of electric dipoles can mutually attract each other too, since multiple dipoles or multiple dipole groups can have a combined directional non-uniform charge distribution too. This is the true origin of gravitational force. Calculations have shown that, under certain conditions, the strength change rate of gravitational force deduced from the dipole model theory closely follows the law of inverse square of distance. This understanding can effectively explain observed phenomena, including confusing ones, such as flat galaxies, filamentary nebulae, the formation of the Solar System and the Milky Way galaxy, the unusual trajectories of ‘Oumuamua and 3I/ATLAS, as well as dark matter and dark energy. This understanding also naturally unifies gravitational and electromagnetic forces and opens a key door for the final unification of the four fundamental forces of nature.

Abstract: A new electro-gravity theory, referred to as a unified electro-gravity (UEG) theory, is applied to self-consistently model the complete structure of a spinning electron. The results from the new theory, evaluated in comparison with concepts and parameters from basic quantum mechanics (QM) and quantum electrodynamics (QED), clearly indicate that the QM and the QED trace their fundamental origin to the new UEG theory. As a significant fundamental development, the fine structure constant and the electron g-factor, which are key QED parameters, are directly related to a parameter (referred to as the UEG constant) used in the UEG theory. A QM wave function would be physically equivalent to a space-time ripple in the permittivity function of the free space, produced by the strong UEG fields surrounding a spinning charge, and the basic QM relationship between energy and frequency would then naturally emerge from the UEG model. Further extension and generalization of the theory could also explain other quantum mechanical concepts including particle-wave duality, frequency shift in electrodynamic scattering, and charge quantization.

Abstract: This work proposes a method to construct the Dirac operator in curved spacetime without introducing a vierbein (tetrad) or an independent spin connection, using only a matrix representation rooted in the basis structure of the four-dimensional gamma-matrix algebra. We introduce sixteen two-index gamma matrices realized as 256 × 256 matrices and embed the spacetime metric directly into matrix elements. In this framework, geometric operations such as covariantization, connection-like manipulations, and basis transformations are reduced to matrix products and trace operations, enabling a unified and transparent computational scheme. The spacetime dimension remains four; the number ``16'' labels the basis elements of the four-dimensional gamma-matrix algebra ((2⁴ = 16). Based on an extended QED Lagrangian, the vertex rule, propagators, spin sums, and traces can be treated in a unified way, which facilitates automation. As validation, we consider Compton scattering, muon-pair production, Møller scattering, and Bhabha scattering. We show that off-diagonal components of the metric can induce characteristic angular dependences in differential cross sections, while the flat-spacetime limit reproduces standard QED results exactly. In a trial calculation with a toy metric containing off-diagonal components, a systematic deviation from the flat result appears near a scattering angle θ ≈ 90^◦ when the coordinate angle is plotted directly, suggesting that metric-induced angular dependence could, in principle, serve as an observational indicator. These results indicate that the proposed matrix representation provides a practical algebraic tool to integrate the Dirac operator in a curved background and quantum electromagnetic processes into a single computational pipeline.

Abstract: Peer review of empirical patterns in high-precision, low-dimensionality param- eter spaces relies on implicit evaluation standards. When N = 3 parameters at 2% precision permit thousands of statistically significant formulas, reviewers must distinguish structure from coincidence, but the criteria for doing so remain unar- ticulated. We found no published record of community debate establishing explicit standards, despite decades of informal application. This paper proposes one such articulation: seven criteria emphasizing tempo- ral convergence through timestamped predictions. We offer specific thresholds not because we believe them correct, but because explicit proposals can be calibrated while implicit standards cannot. The need for explicit standards is timely. Lattice QCD has only recently achieved the precision necessary for discriminatory tests of quark mass relations. Historical precedents from lepton phenomenology (Koide, Gell-Mann–Okubo) provide limited guidance: leptons offer ∼35,000× greater discriminatory power than light quarks, in- volve no RG running, and constitute a fundamentally different measurement regime. The historical record is further compromised by survivorship bias: patterns that di- verged are largely unrecorded. Historical cases motivate the problem by illustrating why implicit evaluation proved adequate for leptons but may prove inadequate for quarks. They cannot validate the proposed solution. Validation is prospective by design: starting from this publication, patterns evaluated under this framework will be tracked publicly. The framework succeeds if it proves predictively useful; it fails if it requires constant post-hoc adjustment, judged by its own temporal convergence criterion. If this proposal provokes disagreement that leads to better criteria, it will have served its purpose. If it is ignored, the current system of implicit evaluation contin- ues unchanged. We consider both engagement and refinement to be success.

Abstract: We introduce an informational holonomy curvature associated with a state bundle over a Riemannian manifold and a family of channels acting on the fibres. In the continuous setting, we define an informational holonomy defect by transporting a reference state around small geodesic loops and measuring the deviation via an informational divergence, and we show that the resulting sectional-type curvature is determined by the curvature of the connection on the state bundle. On quasi-uniform sampling graphs endowed with discrete fibres, divergences and channels, we define a discrete informational holonomy curvature and prove a discrete-to-continuous convergence theorem under explicit sampling and consistency assumptions. In geometric Fisher-type models, the limit reduces, on spaces of constant curvature, to a constant multiple of the classical sectional curvature.

Abstract:

Higgs physics is an active front from both experimental and theoretical aspects. It is a problem how to explain the measured value of Higgs mass, and a simple question like where the quartic coupling potential exactly comes from could not be well answered. This paper described a simple model to calculate the Higgs mass. It seems the Higgs mass may come from the coupling between Hawking energy of the Planck scale Kerr black hole and the thermal energy of cosmological microwave background. And by a logarithm potential, we can naturally get the exact quartic term for the Lagrangian. The Higgs mass we get is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the cosmological thermal background, which may mean it shall be larger at earlier universe.

Abstract: Koide's mass formula, originally proposed for charged leptons, has been hypothesized by Carl A. Brannen to also apply to neutrinos. Assuming this hypothesis' validity, two three-dimensional mass models were constructed based on the proposed neutrino masses. This paper demonstrates that the Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata (PMNS) matrix can be derived by introducing an intermediate set of hypothetical states, referred to as mass negative eigenstates, which mediate the transformation between mass and flavor eigenstates. This framework naturally reproduces the tribimaximal mixing structure and yields a PMNS matrix with elements close to those obtained using global fits. Neutrino oscillation probability predictions were further compared with results from the Tokai-to-Kamioka (T2K) and Daya Bay collaborations. While the proposed model captures key structural lepton mixing features, a deviation of approximately −3σ in sin²(2θ₁₃) highlights its limitations in terms of reproducing current data. This discrepancy may indicate the involvement of additional mechanisms or physics beyond the current framework. Future theoretical refinements and more precise experimental tests are crucial to assess whether the Koide--Brannen framework can serve as a meaningful step toward a deeper understanding of neutrino phenomenology.

Abstract: Entanglement is conventionally treated as an abstract property of tensor-product Hilbert spaces. We show instead that it can be realized as a global compatibility constraint in the internal gauge bundle of the vacuum, encoded by a locally pure-gauge field Ξ(x) acting only on internal degrees of freedom. This vacuum internal gauge symmetry (VIGS) yields a concrete, symmetry-based mechanism for quantum correlations that requires no nonlocal dynamics, introduces no new particles or forces, and leaves the Standard Model Lagrangian unchanged. Our main result is the Vacuum Internal Gauge Theorem, which demonstrates that: (i) all nontrivial global constraints induced by Ξ are confined to internal fibers; (ii) only internal degrees of freedom can become entangled; (iii) no information can be transmitted via the vacuum gauge structure; and (iv) gravitational degrees of freedom, having no internal fiber structure, cannot be entangled. Thus VIGS explains the empirical restriction of entanglement to internal DOFs and predicts the absence of gravitational entanglement, providing a gauge-theoretic foundation for quantum correlations within a strictly local spacetime.

Abstract: The origin and evolution of the universe are central questions in modern natural science. The current mainstream theoretical frameworks in related fields are the Standard Model of Particle Physics and the Big Bang theory of cosmology, both of which exhibit significant limitations. The Standard Model fails to incorporate gravitational interactions and includes an extensive array of elementary particle types. The Big Bang theory’s "singularity" hypothesis struggles to explain the initial conditions of the universe, dark matter, dark energy, and the accelerated expansion of the cosmos. This paper proposes a unified theoretical framework — the Great Tao Model, which consists of the Yin-Yang Model of elementary particles and the Theory of Existence Field. The Yin-Yang Model classifies elementary particles into three categories based on charge properties: electron, positron, and subston, and deduces five composite particles (proton, antiproton, neutron, antineutron, neutrino). The Theory of Existence Field posits that charge and mass, as fundamental physical quantities, inherently and continuously diffuse their physical information into surrounding space, forming an "existence field". Elementary particles transmit physical information and interact through their existence fields. Based on the Great Tao Model, this paper systematically elucidates the complete physical picture from the combination of elementary particles to the formation of cosmic structures and provides unified explanations for puzzles such as dark matter, neutrinos, the nature of nuclear forces, the precession of Mercury, and the accelerated expansion of the universe. Philosophically, the model aligns with ancient Chinese Daoist thought, while physically, it embodies theoretical simplicity and unity, making it a potential candidate for a "Theory of Everything".

Abstract: The Standard Model (SM) of particle physics is one of the most successful frameworks in modern physics, yet it leaves several fundamental questions unanswered, including the nature of dark matter (DM). Precise knowledge of DM is crucial for testing astrophysical and cosmological observations and for determining the matter density of our Universe. Many hidden dark-sector models beyond the SM open the possibility of coupling between DM and SM particles via various portals. The corresponding new-physics particles include light Higgs boson, dark photon, axion-like particle, and spin-1/2 fermions. Furthermore, the introduction of a dark baryon could simultaneously explain the origin of DM and the observed matter-antimatter asymmetry in the Universe. If these hypothetical particles have masses of a few GeV, they can be explored at high-intensity e⁺e⁻ colliders, such as the BaBar, Belle/Belle II, and BESIII experiments. This report reviews the current status of DM searches at e⁺e⁻ colliders, with a focus on portal-based scenarios.