Prerpints.org logo
Preprint
Article

This version is not peer-reviewed.

Women Protection Cells in India: Empowering Women Against Gender-Based Violence Amid Systemic and Cultural Challenges

Submitted:

06 June 2025

Posted:

10 June 2025

You are already at the latest version

Abstract
Women Protection Cells (WPCs) in India, established to combat gender-based violence, have evolved since their inception in 1984 to provide critical support to women facing domestic violence and related crimes. These specialized units within police stations offer counselling, legal assistance, and community engagement to create a gender-sensitive environment for reporting crimes. While WPCs have increased reporting rates and improved police responsiveness, their effectiveness varies across regions due to systemic challenges such as inadequate funding, insufficient staffing, and patriarchal attitudes within law enforcement and society. Judicial developments, including the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) of 2005, have strengthened their legal framework, but implementation gaps and cultural barriers persist. This paper examines the historical development, operational structure, regional variations, and impact of WPCs, highlighting their role in empowering women and the need for technological integration, legal reforms, and societal changes to enhance their effectiveness.
Keywords: 
Women Protection Cells
;  
gender-based violence
;  
domestic violence
;  
India
;  
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
;  
police responsiveness
;  
patriarchal attitudes
;  
legal assistance
;  
community engagement
;  
technological integration
Subject: 
Social Sciences  -   Law

Introduction

Historical Development of Women Protection Cells in India

The establishment of Women Protection Cells (WPCs) in India can be traced back to the growing recognition of violence against women as a significant social issue. The first Special Cell for Women and Children was set up in Mumbai in 1984, marking a pivotal moment in addressing gender-based violence through institutionalized mechanisms (Dave, 2013) (Hague, 2013). This initiative was part of a broader movement to create specialized units within the police force to handle cases of domestic violence, dowry harassment, and other crimes against women.
The creation of these cells was influenced by the women’s movement in India, which sought to address the systemic issues of gender-based violence and the lack of gender-sensitive policing (Dave, 2013) (Ray, 2011). The Special Cells were designed to provide a safe space for women to report crimes and seek assistance, bypassing the often-hostile and patriarchal environment of regular police stations (Dave, 2013) (Hague, 2013).
The establishment of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) in 2005 further solidified the role of WPCs in addressing domestic violence (Panchal et al., 2023) (Hornbeck et al., 2007). The Act provided a legal framework for protecting women from domestic violence and emphasized the need for specialized cells to handle such cases effectively.

Operational Structure of Women Protection Cells

The operational structure of Women Protection Cells varies across regions, but most cells function as specialized units within police stations. These cells are typically staffed by women police officers and sometimes collaborate with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to provide holistic support to victims of domestic violence and other crimes against women (Ray, 2011) (Natarajan, 1996).

The Primary Functions of WPCs Include

  • Receiving and Registering Complaints: WPCs serve as a first point of contact for women seeking help for domestic violence, harassment, and other gender-based crimes (Ray, 2011) (B et al., 2000).
  • Counselling and Mediation: Many cells offer counselling services to help women navigate their situations and, in some cases, mediate between the victim and the perpetrator to resolve disputes amicably (Natarajan, 2005) (Ray, 2011).
  • Legal Assistance: WPCs often provide guidance on legal recourse, including filing complaints under relevant laws such as the PWDVA and Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) (B et al., 2000) (Panchal et al., 2023).
  • Collaboration with NGOs: In some cases, WPCs work with NGOs to provide shelter, medical assistance, and other support services to victims (Ray, 2011) (Hague, 2013).
The operational structure of WPCs is designed to create a gender-sensitive environment where women feel comfortable seeking help. However, the effectiveness of these cells is often hindered by resource constraints, lack of trained personnel, and the overarching patriarchal culture within the police force (Jassal, 2021) (Ray, 2011).

Impact and Effectiveness of Women Protection Cells

The impact and effectiveness of WPCs have been studied extensively, with mixed results. On the positive side, these cells have provided a platform for women to report crimes that might otherwise go unreported due to fear of stigma or retaliation (Dave, 2013) (B et al., 2000). The presence of WPCs has also led to increased trust in the police force among women, particularly in regions where gender-based violence is prevalent (Natarajan, 1996) (Siwach & Siwach, 2018).
Studies have shown that WPCs have been successful in resolving a significant number of cases, particularly those related to domestic violence and dowry disputes (Natarajan, 2005) (B et al., 2000). For instance, in Tamil Nadu, all-women police stations have been effective in reducing violence against women by providing a safe space for reporting crimes and offering dispute resolution services (Natarajan, 2005) (Natarajan, 1996).
However, the effectiveness of WPCs is not uniform across all regions. Challenges such as inadequate funding, lack of trained personnel, and poor coordination between the police and NGOs have hindered the effectiveness of these cells in some areas (Jassal, 2021) (Ray, 2011). Additionally, the patriarchal mindset of some police officers and the broader societal attitudes toward gender-based violence continue to pose significant barriers to the effective functioning of WPCs (Jassal, 2021) (Hornbeck et al., 2007).

Regional Variations in the Functioning of Women Protection Cells

The functioning of WPCs varies significantly across different regions in India, influenced by factors such as cultural norms, resource availability, and the level of political will. Some regions have seen notable success in implementing and operating WPCs, while others have struggled to achieve the desired outcomes.

Tamil Nadu: A Model for Success

Tamil Nadu has been at the forefront of implementing WPCs, with all-women police stations established in 1992 to address crimes against women (Natarajan, 2005) (Natarajan, 1996). These stations have been successful in resolving domestic violence cases and reducing violence against women. The success of these units can be attributed to the specialized training of women police officers in dispute resolution and the integration of legal and counseling services (Natarajan, 2005) (Natarajan, 1996).

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh: Challenges in Implementation

In contrast, states like Haryana and Uttar Pradesh have faced significant challenges in implementing WPCs effectively. Despite the establishment of all-women police stations, these regions have struggled with issues such as lack of resources, poor infrastructure, and the persistence of patriarchal attitudes within the police force (Jassal, 2021) (Ray, 2011). These challenges have limited the impact of WPCs in these areas, with many cases of domestic violence going unreported or unresolved.

Maharashtra: Mixed Outcomes

In Maharashtra, the implementation of WPCs has yielded mixed results. While the state has the necessary infrastructure and legal framework in place, the effectiveness of these cells is often undermined by the lack of coordination between the police and NGOs, as well as the limited awareness of the services offered by WPCs among rural women (Panchal et al., 2023) (Hornbeck et al., 2007).
Table. Regional Variations in the Functioning of Women Protection Cells.
Table. Regional Variations in the Functioning of Women Protection Cells.
Region Operational Features Effectiveness and Challenges
Tamil Nadu All-women police stations established in 1992; focus on domestic violence and dowry disputes; specialized training for women police officers (Natarajan, 2005) (Natarajan, 1996) High success rate in resolving cases; reduction in violence against women (Natarajan, 2005) (Natarajan, 1996)
Haryana All-women police stations established; limited resources and infrastructure (Jassal, 2021) (Ray, 2011) Poor effectiveness due to patriarchal attitudes and resource constraints (Jassal, 2021) (Ray, 2011)
Maharashtra WPCs established with legal and counseling services; collaboration with NGOs (Panchal et al., 2023) (Hornbeck et al., 2007) Mixed outcomes due to lack of coordination and awareness (Panchal et al., 2023) (Hornbeck et al., 2007)

Role and Effectiveness of Women Protection Cells in India in Reducing Violence Against Women

Violence against women is a pervasive issue in India, with significant social, legal, and cultural dimensions. To address this, the Indian government and civil society organizations have established Women Protection Cells (WPCs) within police stations. These cells aim to provide a safe space for women to report violence and seek assistance. This response evaluates the role and effectiveness of WPCs in reducing violence against women, drawing on insights from various research papers.

Role of Women Protection Cells

WPCs, also known as Special Cells on Violence Against Women, were established to address the growing issue of gender-based violence. These cells are designed to provide immediate assistance to women facing domestic violence, harassment, and other forms of abuse. The primary functions of WPCs include:
  • Counseling and Support: WPCs offer counseling services to women, helping them cope with the emotional and psychological impact of violence. This support is often provided in collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Ray, 2011) (B et al., 2000).
  • Legal Assistance: WPCs assist women in navigating the legal system, helping them file complaints and pursue legal action against perpetrators. This includes guiding women through the process of obtaining protection orders under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (Ramzan, 2023) (Kalyani, 2013).
  • Awareness and Prevention: WPCs often engage in community outreach programs to raise awareness about violence against women and the legal recourse available to victims. These efforts aim to empower women and reduce the stigma associated with reporting violence (Menon et al., 2021) (Widjiastuti & Kartiko, 2023).

Effectiveness of Women Protection Cells

The effectiveness of WPCs in reducing violence against women is a subject of ongoing debate. While these cells have contributed to improving the response to gender-based violence, several challenges limit their impact.

Positive Outcomes

  • Increased Reporting: The establishment of WPCs has led to an increase in the reporting of violence against women. Women feel more comfortable approaching these specialized cells, which are perceived as more sensitive to their needs compared to general police stations (Sukhtankar et al., 2022) (Ray, 2011).
  • Improved Police Responsiveness: Studies have shown that police officers assigned to WPCs are more likely to register cases of gender-based violence, particularly when female officers are involved. This suggests that gender representation within the police force can enhance the effectiveness of WPCs (Sukhtankar et al., 2022) (Ray, 2011).
  • Community Engagement: WPCs have facilitated greater community involvement in addressing violence against women. By collaborating with NGOs and community groups, these cells have helped shift societal attitudes and encouraged collective action against gender-based violence (Menon et al., 2021) (Gram et al., 2023).

Challenges and Limitations

  • Cultural and Social Barriers: Despite the efforts of WPCs, cultural and social norms continue to hinder their effectiveness. Many women are reluctant to report violence due to fear of stigma, family pressure, or lack of support from male relatives (B et al., 2000) (Bhardwaj, 2023).
  • Limited Awareness: A significant proportion of women in India are unaware of the existence and functions of WPCs. This lack of awareness, particularly in rural areas, reduces the cells' reach and impact (Ramzan, 2023) (Widjiastuti & Kartiko, 2023).
  • Implementation Gaps: The effectiveness of WPCs is often undermined by inadequate resources, insufficient training of personnel, and the patriarchal attitudes of some police officers. These factors can lead to a lack of trust in the system and discourage women from seeking help (Ray, 2011) (Lebedev, 2022).
  • Legal and Procedural Delays: Even when women do report violence, they often face delays in legal proceedings and inadequate enforcement of protection orders. This can discourage women from pursuing justice and undermine the credibility of WPCs (Ramzan, 2023) (Kalyani, 2013).

Case Studies and Examples

Several studies have highlighted the mixed outcomes of WPCs in different regions of India. For instance:
  • Orissa Women’s Cell: A study on the Orissa Women’s Cell revealed that while the cell provided a more gender-sensitive environment, its effectiveness was limited by its position within the patriarchal police bureaucracy. The cell’s ability to fulfill its objectives was constrained by the broader societal and institutional context (Ray, 2011).
  • Special Cell on Violence Against Women in Mumbai: Research on the Special Cell in Mumbai highlighted the importance of community mobilization and collaboration with NGOs. The cell’s success was attributed to its ability to engage with the community and shift perceptions about gender-based violence (Menon et al., 2021) (Gram et al., 2023).
Table. Key Insights on Women Protection Cells.
Table. Key Insights on Women Protection Cells.
Aspect Key Findings Citation
Role of WPCs Provide counseling, legal assistance, and awareness programs (Ray, 2011) (B et al., 2000)
Effectiveness Increased reporting and improved police responsiveness (Sukhtankar et al., 2022) (Ray, 2011)
Challenges Cultural barriers, limited awareness, implementation gaps (B et al., 2000) (Ramzan, 2023)
Community Engagement Collaboration with NGOs and community groups enhances impact (Menon et al., 2021) (Gram et al., 2023)
Legal and Procedural Issues Delays in legal proceedings and enforcement undermine effectiveness (Ramzan, 2023) (Kalyani, 2013)

Judicial Developments and Their Impact on Women Protection Cells

Judicial development initiatives have significantly impacted the effectiveness of women protection cells in providing support to victims of domestic abuse. These initiatives have introduced legal frameworks and advocacy programs that enhance the ability of women protection cells to offer comprehensive support to victims. By integrating judicial measures with advocacy and support services, these initiatives aim to create a more responsive and effective system for addressing domestic violence. The following sections explore the various aspects of these judicial developments and their impact on women protection cells.

Legal Frameworks and Protective Measures

  • The establishment of specific laws, such as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act in India, has provided a legal basis for women protection cells to operate effectively. This Act offers emergency civil protection and a comprehensive definition of domestic violence, which is crucial for the enforcement of protective measures (Hornbeck et al., 2007).
  • In Paraguay, the role of Justices of the Peace in ordering protective measures has been highlighted as essential in preventing further violence against victims. These measures are supported by laws specifically designed to protect women from domestic violence (Rivas, 2021).

Judicial Advocacy and Support Programs

  • Court-based advocacy programs, such as those involving law students working with battered women, have shown to reduce physical and psychological reabuse. These programs provide victims with better emotional support and help them navigate the legal system more effectively (Bell & Goodman, 2001).
  • The creation of specialized courts, like the Courts for Domestic and Family Violence against Women in Brazil, has been instrumental in providing a focused and informed judicial response to domestic violence cases. These courts aim to ensure that victims receive quality legal assistance and support (Brandão et al., 2015).

Challenges and Limitations

  • Despite these advancements, challenges remain in the enforcement of protective measures. In some cases, judicial responses have been inconsistent, with courts sometimes failing to provide adequate protection due to entrenched patriarchal attitudes (Hornbeck et al., 2007) (Ptacek, 1999).
  • The historical context of judicial patriarchy has influenced the way domestic violence cases are handled, with some judges trivializing cases that do not fit traditional gender roles. This has sometimes led to inadequate protection for victims (Katz, 2015).

Human Rights Perspective

  • From a human rights perspective, states have a positive obligation to protect individuals from domestic violence, as outlined in international conventions. This obligation reinforces the need for effective judicial measures and support systems to protect victims (Vasiliu, 2024).
  • Legal protection for women as witnesses in domestic violence cases is also crucial. Ensuring their safety and comfort during legal proceedings is an essential aspect of comprehensive victim support (Hartono, 2014).
While judicial development initiatives have made significant strides in enhancing the effectiveness of women protection cells, challenges remain in fully realizing their potential. The success of these initiatives depends on the consistent enforcement of laws, the dismantling of patriarchal mindsets, and the empowerment of women to recognize and assert their rights. Additionally, ongoing training and sensitization of judicial and law enforcement personnel are necessary to ensure that these initiatives translate into tangible improvements in the lives of domestic violence victims.

Enhancing the Effectiveness and Accountability of Women Protection Cells in India

Improving the effectiveness of women protection cells in India to prevent misuse involves a multifaceted approach that includes technological integration, legal reforms, and societal changes. Women protection cells, which are designed to address issues such as domestic violence and harassment, often face challenges such as inadequate resources, lack of coordination, and societal biases. To enhance their effectiveness, it is crucial to address these challenges while also ensuring that the systems in place are not misused. Here are some strategies that can be implemented:

Technological Integration

  • Smartphone Applications: The development of applications like SAKHI can significantly enhance the effectiveness of women protection cells by providing real-time assistance. These apps can send SOS alerts, record incidents, and share location data with authorities and emergency contacts, thus providing crucial evidence and facilitating swift action (Singh & Mehto, 2023) (Suttur et al., 2022).
  • Real-Time Intelligence Systems: Leveraging technologies such as machine learning and artificial intelligence can help predict safe routes, record evidence, and provide legal guidance, thereby empowering women and ensuring their safety in various environments (Sidhu, 2024).

Legal and Policy Reforms

  • Strengthening the PWDVA: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) needs better implementation through adequate funding, human resources, and effective monitoring mechanisms. This would ensure that the Act is not just a "paper tiger" but a robust tool for protecting women (Parvati, 2015) (Hornbeck et al., 2007).
  • Comprehensive Crime Prevention Policies: National crime prevention policies should incorporate gender-specific strategies that address the unique needs and impacts of crime on women. This includes developing short- and long-term strategies that involve education and support programs (Shaw, 2002).

Societal and Cultural Changes

  • Education and Awareness: Educating both men and women about gender roles and the unacceptability of violence is crucial. Programs that target children, families, and schools can help change societal attitudes and reduce gender-based violence (Shaw, 2002).
  • Empowerment and Support: Empowering women through education and providing them with the necessary tools and support to recognize and report violence is essential. This includes ensuring that women have access to safe, effective, and affordable protection technologies (Omar et al., 2024).

Monitoring and Evaluation

  • Data Collection and Analysis: Collecting gender-disaggregated data and conducting regular evaluations of the effectiveness of women protection cells can help identify best practices and areas for improvement. This data can also be used to convince governments of the importance of promoting women's safety (Shaw, 2002).
  • Partnerships and Collaboration: Developing partnerships with NGOs, community organizations, and international bodies can enhance the sustainability and effectiveness of initiatives aimed at protecting women (Shaw, 2002).
While these strategies can significantly improve the effectiveness of women protection cells, it is also important to consider potential challenges such as the misuse of technology and legal systems. Ensuring that these systems are not exploited requires robust checks and balances, as well as continuous monitoring and evaluation. Additionally, addressing the patriarchal mindset that often underlies gender-based violence is crucial for long-term change.

Strengthening Women’s Safety

The Role and Impact of Women Protection Cells

Women protection cells play a crucial role in enhancing the safety and well-being of women in society by providing a structured and supportive environment for addressing violence against women. These cells are instrumental in offering legal, psychological, and social support to victims, thereby empowering them to seek justice and rebuild their lives. The effectiveness of women protection cells is contingent upon their ability to integrate various protective measures, legal frameworks, and community involvement to create a comprehensive support system for women. The following sections explore the impact of women protection cells on women's safety and well-being.

Legal Framework and Enforcement

  • Women protection cells operate within a legal framework that includes laws such as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, which provides emergency civil protection for victims (Hornbeck et al., 2007). This Act is designed to offer protection orders and ensure women's right to reside in their household, which is a significant step towards gender equality.
  • The Maria da Penha Law in Brazil exemplifies the importance of legal measures in protecting women from domestic violence. It includes police patrols to monitor victims and enforce protective measures, highlighting the role of law enforcement in ensuring women's safety (Herdman & Teixeira, 2024).

Reporting and Community Involvement

  • Effective reporting mechanisms are crucial for the success of women protection cells. The Maria da Penha Patrol emphasizes the importance of community involvement in reporting violence and supporting victims (Herdman & Teixeira, 2024).
  • The Special Cell for Women and Children in India demonstrates the need for community endorsement and witness support in building cases of domestic violence, which can encourage more women to come forward and report abuse (B et al., 2000).

Psychological and Social Support

  • Women protection cells provide psychological support to victims, helping them cope with trauma and rebuild their lives. This support is essential for addressing the long-term effects of violence, such as emotional and psychological abuse (Avhad, 2024).
  • Social protection programs, including cash transfers, are vital for women survivors of domestic violence, as they help mitigate the economic impact of violence and support women's participation in development programs (Rohwerder, 2014).

Technological Innovations

  • Technological solutions, such as the SAKHI smartphone application, enhance the effectiveness of women protection cells by providing tools for immediate assistance and evidence collection. These applications enable women to send SOS alerts and record incidents, facilitating swift justice and increasing public safety (Singh & Mehto, 2023).
While women protection cells significantly contribute to the safety and well-being of women, challenges remain in their implementation and effectiveness. The patriarchal mindset prevalent in many societies can hinder the enforcement of protective measures and discourage women from seeking help (Hornbeck et al., 2007). Additionally, the slow judicial processes and lack of sensitivity in handling cases can undermine the confidence of victims in the system (Herdman & Teixeira, 2024). Therefore, continuous efforts are needed to address these challenges, including legal reforms, community education, and the sensitization of law enforcement agencies to ensure that women protection cells can effectively fulfill their role in society.

Barriers to Effective Functioning of Women Protection Cells in India

Women protection cells in India face numerous challenges in providing support and services to survivors of violence. These challenges stem from systemic issues such as inadequate funding, insufficient staffing, and poor coordination among stakeholders, which hinder the effective implementation of laws like the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA). Additionally, societal norms and the stigma surrounding domestic violence further complicate the efforts of these cells. The following sections delve into the specific challenges faced by women protection cells in India.

Systemic and Resource Constraints

  • Inadequate Funding and Staffing: Women protection cells often suffer from a lack of financial resources and human capital, which limits their ability to provide comprehensive support to survivors. This underfunding affects the implementation of the PWDVA, as the law requires significant resources to be effective (Dubochet, 2012) (Parvati, 2015).
  • Coordination Challenges: Effective support for survivors requires collaboration among various stakeholders, including police, legal, and healthcare services. However, poor coordination and communication between these entities often result in fragmented and inefficient service delivery (Dubochet, 2012) (Parvati, 2015).

Societal and Cultural Barriers

  • Stigma and Underreporting: Many women do not report violence due to societal stigma and fear of retribution. This is compounded by a cultural acceptance of violence as a private matter, which discourages women from seeking help from formal institutions (Jain, 2013) (Newberry et al., 2020).
  • Patriarchal Mindset: The deeply entrenched patriarchal norms in Indian society often lead to the trivialization of domestic violence, making it difficult for women to access justice and protection. This mindset also affects the enforcement of laws designed to protect women (Hornbeck et al., 2007).

Legal and Administrative Hurdles

  • Complex Legal Language and Processes: The legal system can be intimidating and inaccessible for many survivors due to its complex language and procedures. This creates a barrier for women seeking justice and protection through legal means (Barhoi et al., 2024).
  • Ineffective Monitoring and Implementation: The lack of effective monitoring mechanisms for laws like the PWDVA results in inconsistent enforcement and accountability, further undermining the protection offered to survivors (Parvati, 2015).

Psychological and Health Support Deficiencies

  • Lack of Comprehensive Care: Survivors often require a range of services, including psychological support, medical care, and legal assistance. However, the availability of these services is limited, and there is a need for a more integrated approach to care (Harbishettar & Math, 2014) (James et al., n.d.).
  • Mental Health Challenges: Violence has significant mental health implications, yet there is a lack of standardized mental health screening and support for survivors. This gap in services can exacerbate the psychological trauma experienced by survivors (Harbishettar & Math, 2014).
While these challenges are significant, there are efforts underway to address them. Initiatives like the One Stop Centres aim to provide integrated services under one roof, offering medical, legal, and psychological support to survivors (James et al., n.d.). Additionally, community outreach and education programs are crucial in changing societal attitudes towards domestic violence and encouraging more women to seek help (Daruwalla et al., 2024). However, for these efforts to be successful, there must be a concerted effort to address the systemic issues and cultural barriers that currently impede the effectiveness of women protection cells in India.

Challenges Faced by Women Protection Cells in Safeguarding Marriages

The failure of women protection cells in safeguarding the institution of marriage can be attributed to a complex interplay of social, legal, and institutional factors. These cells, often established to address domestic violence and protect women's rights, face numerous challenges that hinder their effectiveness. The underlying causes of their failure include inadequate legal frameworks, societal norms, and institutional inefficiencies. These factors collectively contribute to the inability of women protection cells to effectively intervene and preserve marriages.

Inadequate Legal Frameworks

  • Lack of Comprehensive Legislation: Many regions lack robust legal frameworks that adequately protect women's rights within marriage. For instance, in Pakistan, the absence of a coordinated policy net for women's protection is a significant barrier to achieving equality and progress (Giersch, 2023).
  • Ineffective Implementation: Even when laws exist, their implementation is often weak. In the context of marriage isbat cases accompanied by divorce, the rights of women and children are frequently neglected, highlighting the gap between legislation and its enforcement (Rizqy et al., 2024).

Societal Norms and Patriarchy

  • Patriarchal Structures: Deep-rooted patriarchal norms often undermine the effectiveness of women protection cells. These norms perpetuate gender inequality and limit women's autonomy, making it difficult for protection cells to challenge societal expectations and preserve marriages (Giersch, 2023).
  • Cultural Attitudes: The perception of marital violence as a private issue diminishes public importance and hinders state intervention. This cultural attitude complicates efforts to empower women and address violence within marriages (Cedeño-Floril & Machado-López, 2023).

Institutional Inefficiencies

  • Bureaucratic Challenges: Excessive bureaucracy and insufficient institutional support are significant obstacles faced by women protection cells. These challenges limit the cells' ability to provide timely and effective assistance to victims of domestic violence (Furtado, 2024).
  • Collaboration Issues: The collaboration between state machinery and civil society organizations, such as NGOs, is often fraught with challenges. In Orissa, India, the integration of women's cells within police stations has been limited by the cells' problematic position within the police bureaucracy, affecting their capacity to fulfill their objectives (Ray, 2011).

Alternative Perspectives

While women protection cells face significant challenges, they also provide a more gender-sensitive environment compared to traditional police stations. This can make them more accessible and compassionate spaces for women seeking help (Ray, 2011). Additionally, the empowerment of women, although complex, is recognized as a tool to counteract violence, suggesting that with the right policies and support, these cells could potentially play a more effective role in preserving marriages (Cedeño-Floril & Machado-López, 2023). However, achieving this requires addressing the systemic issues that currently limit their effectiveness.

Failures of Women Protection Cells in Safeguarding Marriage

The failure of women protection cells in safeguarding the institution of marriage can be attributed to a complex interplay of systemic, cultural, and operational factors. These cells, often established to address domestic violence and protect women's rights, face numerous challenges that undermine their effectiveness. The issues range from inadequate legal frameworks and enforcement to cultural norms and institutional limitations. Understanding these underlying causes is crucial for developing more effective strategies to support women and uphold the institution of marriage.

Systemic and Legal Challenges

  • Inadequate Legal Frameworks: Many legal systems lack comprehensive laws that effectively protect women's rights within marriage. For instance, in cases of isbat marriage accompanied by divorce, women's rights are often neglected due to insufficient legal protection, leading to a loss of rights for women and children (Rizqy et al., 2024).
  • Bureaucratic Inefficiencies: Excessive bureaucracy and lack of resources are significant obstacles in the implementation of protective measures. This is evident in the municipality of Jaru, where protective measures are often ineffective due to these systemic issues (Furtado, 2024).

Cultural and Social Norms

  • Patriarchal Structures: Deep-rooted patriarchal norms often hinder the implementation of protective policies. In Pakistan, for example, family-level and structural patriarchy prevent the effective implementation of state-level protective policies for women (Giersch, 2023).
  • Social Stigma and Gender Norms: The societal perception of marriage and gender roles can also impede the effectiveness of women protection cells. In India, the collaboration between police and NGOs in women's cells is limited by the prevailing masculinist culture within police stations, which affects the handling of domestic violence cases (Ray, 2011).

Operational and Institutional Limitations

  • Integration with Law Enforcement: The integration of women protection cells within police systems can be problematic. In Orissa, India, the collaboration between NGOs and police is often limited by the police's bureaucratic structure, which affects the cells' ability to fulfill their objectives (Ray, 2011).
  • Resource Constraints: Many women protection cells operate with limited resources, which affects their capacity to provide comprehensive support to women. This lack of resources is a common challenge in many regions, as seen in the study of protective measures in Jaru (Furtado, 2024).
While these factors highlight the challenges faced by women protection cells, it is important to consider the broader context of women's empowerment and its complex relationship with marital violence. Empowerment does not always lead to a linear decrease in violence, as the relationship between empowerment and violence is multifaceted. This complexity suggests that empowerment alone may not be sufficient to address the issue of marital violence, and a more nuanced approach is needed to develop effective public policies (Cedeño-Floril & Machado-López, 2023).

Impact of Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage on Women

Socio-Legal Issues and Support Mechanisms

The irretrievable breakdown of marriages has significant societal and legal implications for women, particularly in contexts where marriage is a primary source of economic security. The liberalization of divorce laws, such as the introduction of no-fault divorce, while promoting individual autonomy, often leaves women economically disadvantaged due to traditional gender roles and biases in legal systems. Women protection cells can play a crucial role in mitigating these effects by providing support and advocacy for women during and after divorce proceedings.

Societal Implications

  • Economic Disadvantage: Women often face a substantial decline in their economic status post-divorce. In the U.S., for instance, the shift to no-fault divorce laws led to a 73% drop in the living standards of divorced women and their children, while ex-husbands experienced a 42% increase in their living standards (Kammeyer & Weitzman, 1986) (Weitzman, 1985). This is largely due to the traditional roles women occupy, which limit their career development and economic independence.
  • Gender Bias: Legal systems often exhibit gender bias, favoring male spouses in asset division, regardless of whether they were the primary breadwinner or caretaker. This bias persists even when women are the primary earners, indicating a systemic issue beyond traditional gender roles (Shinall, 2019).
  • Social Stigma: In societies like India, where marriage is a significant social institution, divorced women may face social stigma and isolation, further exacerbating their vulnerability (Chitkara, 2014).

Legal Implications

  • Inadequate Legal Protections: The legal framework often fails to adequately protect women's economic interests post-divorce. In India, for example, the Marriage Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2013, does not ensure equitable division of marital property, leaving women dependent on discretionary compensation (Chitkara, 2014).
  • Child Custody and Support: Legal systems sometimes prioritize the needs of children in divorce settlements, but this is not always consistent. In Indonesia, for instance, legal protections for women and children post-divorce are outlined, but enforcement and practical support can be lacking (Lubis, 2024).
  • Maintenance and Support: The right to maintenance is crucial for women's post-divorce economic security. However, the enforcement of maintenance laws can be inconsistent, and women often face challenges in accessing justice and securing their rights (Pooja & Hooda, 2023).

Role of Women Protection Cells

  • Advocacy and Support: Women protection cells can provide crucial advocacy and support for women navigating the legal system during divorce. They can help ensure that women's rights are upheld and that they receive fair treatment in legal proceedings.
  • Legal Assistance: These cells can offer legal assistance and guidance, helping women understand their rights and the legal processes involved in divorce. This can be particularly important in contexts where women may lack access to legal resources or knowledge (Subramaniam & Krishnan, 2016).
  • Economic Empowerment: By providing resources and support for economic empowerment, women protection cells can help women build financial independence post-divorce, reducing their vulnerability and reliance on ex-spouses (Kumar, 2021).
While the introduction of no-fault divorce laws aims to simplify the divorce process and reduce conflict, it often overlooks the economic and social realities faced by women. The persistence of traditional gender roles and systemic biases in legal systems continue to disadvantage women post-divorce. Women protection cells, by offering support and advocacy, can help mitigate these effects, but broader legal reforms and societal changes are necessary to ensure true gender equality in divorce proceedings.

Suggestions

Increase Funding and Resources: Allocate sufficient financial and human resources to WPCs to ensure adequate staffing, training, and infrastructure, particularly in under-resourced states like Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Enhance Training Programs: Implement mandatory, ongoing gender-sensitivity training for police officers and WPC staff to address patriarchal biases and improve victim interaction.
Strengthen NGO Collaboration: Foster stronger partnerships between WPCs and NGOs to provide comprehensive support, including shelter, medical care, and psychological counseling.
Leverage Technology: Promote the adoption of smartphone applications like SAKHI to enable real-time reporting, evidence collection, and emergency response for victims.
Raise Awareness: Launch nationwide campaigns to educate women, particularly in rural areas, about WPC services and their legal rights under the PWDVA. The role of legal aid is crucial in ensuring access to justice in divorce cases based on the irretrievable breakdown of marriage in Australia (Arora & Kumar Yadav, 2025).
Streamline Legal Processes: Simplify legal procedures and improve coordination between WPCs and judicial systems to reduce delays in case resolution and enforcement of protection orders.
Address Cultural Barriers: Develop community-based education programs targeting men, women, and youth to challenge societal norms that perpetuate violence against women.
Monitor and Evaluate: Establish robust data collection and evaluation mechanisms to assess WPC performance, identify best practices, and address regional disparities.
Integrate One Stop Centres: Expand the One Stop Centre model to provide integrated medical, legal, and psychological support under one roof, enhancing service delivery.
Policy Reforms: Strengthen the implementation of the PWDVA through clear guidelines, accountability mechanisms, and penalties for non-compliance to ensure effective enforcement.
Table. Studies show that inclusion of Irretrievable breakdown as grounds for divorce can solve the problem to a large extent.
Table. Studies show that inclusion of Irretrievable breakdown as grounds for divorce can solve the problem to a large extent.
Aspect Key Findings Citation
Introduction of irretrievable breakdown as a ground for divorce in India Can reduce case pendency and relieve mental tension of estranged spouses Yadav, 2011
Functioning of Woman Protection Cells in India Critiques current system and points out potential threats Yadav, 2013
Recognition of foreign divorces in India Highlights recognition issues of foreign divorce decrees and explores irretrievable breakdown of marriages Yadav, 2020
Comparative analysis of divorce laws Reveals differences in divorce laws related to irretrievable breakdown of marriage between India and other jurisdictions Kumari & Kumar Yadav, 2025
Gender equality and divorce law reforms in Australia Analyzes the impact of gender equality on divorce law reforms under the Family Law Act 1975 Jayasurian & Yadav, 2025
Evolution and challenges of the Family Law Act 1975 in Australia Discusses irretrievable breakdown and custody dispute challenges Chaudhary & Yadav, 2025
Legal recognition and reform of cohabitation and divorce law in Scotland Explores legal recognition and the need for reforms Drema & Yadav, 2025
Impact of Divorce (Scotland) Act 1976 Continues to shape Scottish divorce law with ongoing challenges Zubair & Yadav, 2025
Socio-legal challenges faced by innocent divorcees Highlights issues and societal implications Yadav, 2012
Implementation of laws on irretrievable breakdown in India and Asian countries Assesses social implementation and effects Kumar Yadav et al., 2023
Socio-economic and psychological effects on women and children Examines impact across India, Scotland, New Zealand, and Australia Kumar, 2025
Legal challenges and judicial delays in international divorce in New Zealand Identifies challenges and delays in divorce under irretrievable breakdown framework Anthal & Kumar Yadav, 2025
Trends and legal implications of marriage and divorce in New Zealand Shows significant shifts related to irretrievable breakdown over the past few decades Sindhia & Kumar Yadav, 2025
Legal challenges and judicial reforms on irretrievable breakdown in India Critically evaluates reforms and societal perspectives Ahmad, 2025
Courts’ role, financial impact, and no-fault divorce reforms in New Zealand Examines court functions, financial implications, and legal reforms toward no-fault divorce Tanveer & Yadav, 2025

Conclusion

Women Protection Cells (WPCs) in India play a crucial role in combating gender-based violence and providing support to women in need. However, their effectiveness varies across regions due to factors like resource availability, cultural norms, and political will. To improve WPCs' effectiveness, it is essential to address patriarchal attitudes, improve police-NGOs coordination, and increase awareness of their services. Despite their significant contribution to increased reporting and police responsiveness, WPCs face challenges such as cultural, social, and institutional barriers. To enhance their impact, it is crucial to increase awareness, improve personnel training, and strengthen legal enforcement. Community engagement and collaboration with NGOs are also essential for creating a supportive environment for women seeking assistance. WPCs' effectiveness is hindered by systemic issues, cultural barriers, and regional disparities. Addressing these challenges through increased funding, technological integration, legal reforms, and societal awareness can help WPCs fulfill their potential as a cornerstone of women's safety and empowerment. Strengthening these cells will not only enhance their ability to combat domestic violence but also contribute to broader gender equality and social justice in India.

References

  1. Dave, A. (2013). Strategic Alliance, a Way Forward for Violence Against Women A Case for the Special Cells, India. Violence Against Women. [CrossRef]
  2. Hague, G. M. (2013). Learning From Each Other: The Special Cell and Domestic Violence Activist Responses in Different Contexts Across the World. Violence Against Women. [CrossRef]
  3. Ray, S. (2011). Right intention, not so right outcome: addressing domestic violence through women’s cell. International Journal of Social Sciences.
  4. Panchal, T. J., Inamdar, V., & Balaji, A. (2023). Domestic Violence and the Law: A Study of Complaints Under the Protection of Women From Domestic Violence Act, 2005 in Maharashtra, India. Violence Against Women. [CrossRef]
  5. Hornbeck, A., Johnson, B., LaGrotta, M., & Sellman, K. (2007). The Protection of Women form Domestic Violence Act: Solution or Mere Paper Tiger? The Loyola University Chicago International Law Review.
  6. Natarajan, M. (1996). Women police units in India: a new direction. Police Studies: Intnl Review of Police Development. [CrossRef]
  7. B, B., Duvvury, N., A, R., & N, V. (2000). Special Cell for Women and Children: a research study on domestic violence [by] Anjali Dave and Gopika Solanki. Summary report.
  8. Natarajan, M. (2005). Women Police Stations as a Dispute Processing System. Women & Criminal Justice. [CrossRef]
  9. Jassal, N. (2021). Segregation as Efficiency? Group-Specific Institutions in North India. The Journal of Asian Studies. [CrossRef]
  10. Siwach, G., & Siwach, G. (2018). Crimes Against Women in India: Evaluating the Role of a Gender Representative Police Force. Social Science Research Network. [CrossRef]
  11. Ramzan, M. (2023).Response to Domestic Violence. [CrossRef]
  12. Kalyani, V. P. (2013). Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: A Critical Appraisal.Social Science Research Network.
  13. Menon, S. V., Menon, S. V., & Allen, N. E. (2021). Community Organizing and Counter Narratives in the Response to Domestic Violence in India. American Journal of Community Psychology. [CrossRef]
  14. Widjiastuti, A., & Kartiko, N. D. (2023). Confronting Gender-Based Violence: The State’s Accountability In Safeguarding Women And Children’s Human Rights. Journal of Law, Administration, and Social Science. [CrossRef]
  15. Sukhtankar, S., Kruks-Wisner, G., & Mangla, A. (2022). Policing in patriarchy: An experimental evaluation of reforms to improve police responsiveness to women in India.Science. [CrossRef]
  16. Gram, L., Paradkar, S., Osrin, D., Daruwalla, N., & Cislaghi, B. (2023). ‘Our courage has grown’: a grounded theory study of enablers and barriers to community action to address violence against women in urban India. BMJ Global Health. [CrossRef]
  17. Bhardwaj, V. S. (2023).Laws Relating to Domestic Violence in India – A Sociological Analysis. [CrossRef]
  18. Lebedev, S. N. (2022).Of Negotiations and Reframing: Law’s Response to Domestic Violence in Assam. [CrossRef]
  19. Rivas, M. M. L. G. (2021).Importancia de las Medidas de Protección Urgentes emanadas de los Juzgados de Paz en el ámbito doméstico y de protección integral de la mujer.
  20. Bell, M. E., & Goodman, L. A. (2001). Supporting Battered Women Involved with the Court System An Evaluation of a Law School-Based Advocacy Intervention. Violence Against Women. [CrossRef]
  21. Brandão, C., Lima, C. P. de, Tavares, D. C. G., Azevedo, J., Saueia, R., Trindade, R., & Carvalho, L. (2015). Notas sobre os juizados de violência doméstica e familiar contra a mulher. [CrossRef]
  22. Ptacek, J. (1999).Battered Women In The Courtroom: The Power of Judicial Responses.
  23. Katz, E. D. (2015). Judicial patriarchy and domestic violence: a challenge to the conventional family privacy narrative. Social Science Research Network.
  24. Vasiliu, L. (2024). Protective measures for victims of domestic violence from a human rights perspective - guarantees and risks. [CrossRef]
  25. Hartono, B. (2014). Bentuk Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Perempuan Pelapor Selaku Saksi Korban Kekerasan Dalam Rumah Tangga.
  26. Singh, V., & Mehto, A. (2023). Development of A Women Safety Smartphone Application- SAKHI. [CrossRef]
  27. Suttur, C. S., Prabha, P., R, R., Rakshith, R., N, S., & Mangalgi, S. S. (2022). Women Safety System. [CrossRef]
  28. Sidhu, P. G., Kawaljeet Singh, Brahmaleen K. (2024). Transforming Women Safety with Information Technology: A Mobile Real-Time Intelligence Framework. Journal of Electrical Systems. [CrossRef]
  29. Parvati, P. (2015). Implementing the PWDVA: Safeguarding women from domestic violence.
  30. Shaw, M. (2002). Women’s Safety: Is there Progress in Putting Gender into Crime Prevention?
  31. Omar, R. F., Trottier, S., & Lebœuf, M. (2024). Women-Controlled Universal Vaginal Protection against STIs and Unintended Pregnancy. [CrossRef]
  32. Herdman, E., & Teixeira, T. (2024).A lei maria da penha e os desafios policiais na proteção da mulher. [CrossRef]
  33. Avhad, N. D. (2024). Women’s Safety: Domestic Violence, Rape, and Media Portrayal of Women.Indian Scientific Journal Of Research In Engineering And Management. [CrossRef]
  34. Rohwerder, B. (2014).Social protection programmes supporting women survivors of domestic violence (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1130).
  35. Dubochet, L. (2012).Protecting Women from Domestic Violence.
  36. Jain, A. (2013). Preventing and managing violence against women in India.BMJ. [CrossRef]
  37. Newberry, J. A., Kaur, J., Gurrapu, S., Behl, R., Darmstadt, G. L., Halpern-Felsher, B., Rao, G. V. R., Mahadevan, S. V., & Strehlow, M. C. (2020). “So Why Should I Call Them?”: Survivor Support Service Characteristics as Drivers of Help-Seeking in India:Journal of Interpersonal Violence. [CrossRef]
  38. Barhoi, P., Nambudiri, R., & Thomas, N. (2024). Gender-based violence in India and feminist organizing of Women’s Court’s work for its prevention.Gender, Work and Organization. [CrossRef]
  39. Yadav, R. K. (2011). Irretrievable breakdown of marriage as a ground of divorce: A socio-legal study. All India Reporter, 98, 161–167.
  40. Jayasurian, K. and Yadav, R. K. (2025) Gender Equality and Divorce Law Reforms in Australia: Analyzing the Impact of the Family Law Act 1975 and Beyond (February 21, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5147219.
  41. Harbishettar, V., & Math, S. B. (2014). Violence against women in India: comprehensive care for survivors.Indian Journal of Medical Research.
  42. James, R. I., Manoj, D., Devnath, G. P., & Narayanareddy, J. (n.d.). One stop centres for survivors of sexual violence in india: it’s time for swot analysis to overcome the barriers.Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. [CrossRef]
  43. Yadav, R. K. (2013) Woman Protection Cell in India: A Threat (June 29, 2013). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2287120 or. [CrossRef]
  44. Daruwalla, N., Das, T., Punekar, S., Patil, S., Manjrekar, S., Pantvaidya, S., D’Souza, V., & Osrin, D. (2024).Support needs of survivors of violence against women in urban India: a prospective analysis of client records. [CrossRef]
  45. Chaudhary, M. and Yadav, R. K. (2025). The Family Law Act 1975: Evolution, Challenges, and Reforms in Divorce Based on Irretrievable Breakdown and Custody Disputes in Australia (February 20, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5145913.
  46. Giersch, H. (2023).Introduction: Protection and Patriarchy, Can They Co-exist? [CrossRef]
  47. Drema, S. and Yadav, R. K. (2025). Cohabitation and Divorce Law in Scotland: Legal Recognition, Challenges, and Future Reforms (February 20, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5146127.
  48. Rizqy, A. W., Ishaq, I., & Faisol, M. (2024). Legal Protection of Women and Children in Isbat Marriage accompanied by Divorce.Journal of Law, Poliitic and Humanities. [CrossRef]
  49. Zubair, A. and Yadav, R. K. (2025) Evolving Divorce Law in Scotland: Assessing the Impact and Challenges of the Divorce (Scotland) Act 1976 (February 20, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5146068.
  50. Cedeño-Floril, M. P., & Machado-López, L. (2023). Administration of the marital society protective factor empowerment against violence against women.Revista Metropolitana de Ciencias Aplicadas. [CrossRef]
  51. Yadav, R. K. (2012). Innocent Divorcees: A Socio-Legal Study (May 22, 2012). International Indexed & Referred Research Journal, May, 2012. ISSN- 0974-2832, RNI-RAJBIL 2009/29954;VoL.IV *ISSUE-40, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2074014.
  52. Furtado, T. O. (2024).A ineficiência das medidas protetivas: um estudo da realidade vivenciada no município de jaru. [CrossRef]
  53. Kumar Yadav, R., Bala, M., Chaudhary, P., Singh, P., Mittal, A., Kaif, M.,... & Dudi, M. K. (2023). Social bearing of laws and their implementation with reference to irretrievable breakdown of marriage: A comparative study of laws in India and Asian countries. F1000Research, 12, 921.
  54. Kammeyer, K. C. W., & Weitzman, L. J. (1986). The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America.Journal of Marriage and Family. [CrossRef]
  55. Kumar, R. (2025). Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage: Socio-Economic and Psychological Implications for Women and Children Across India, Scotland, New Zealand, and Australia.
  56. Weitzman, L. J. (1985).The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America.
  57. Anthal, D., & Kumar Yadav, D. R. (2025). International Divorce in New Zealand: Legal Challenges and Judicial Delays in the Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage.
  58. Shinall, J. B. (2019). Settling in the Shadow of Sex: Gender Bias in Marital Asset Division.Social Science Research Network.
  59. Sindhia, A. K., & Kumar Yadav, D. R. (2025). Trends and Legal Implications of Marriage and Divorce in New Zealand (1988–2023): Analyzing the Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage.
  60. AHMAD, S. (2025). Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in India: Legal Challenges, Judicial Reforms, and Societal Perspectives. Cambridge Open Engage. [CrossRef]
  61. Chitkara, R. (2014). Between choice and security: irretrievable breakdown of marriage in India.Jurisprudence. [CrossRef]
  62. Tanveer, Ajaz and Yadav, Raj Kumar, The Role of Courts in Divorce Cases Under Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in New Zealand, Financial implications of divorce in New Zealand, Legal reforms in divorce law: New Zealand's shift toward no-fault divorce (February 09, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5129961 or. [CrossRef]
  63. Lubis, R. A. A. (2024). Perlindungan hukum terhadap hak istri dan anak pasca cerai talak.Al-Rasikh. [CrossRef]
  64. Kumari, A., & Kumar Yadav, D. R. (2025). Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage: A Comparative Analysis of Divorce Laws in India and Other Jurisdictions.
  65. Pooja, Ms., & Hooda, R. (2023). Wife’s Right To Maintenance And Human Right: Concerns And Issues.Journal of Namibian Studies : History Politics Culture. [CrossRef]
  66. Arora, S., & Kumar Yadav, D. R. (2025). Ensuring Access to Justice: The Role of Legal Aid in Divorce Cases Under the Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in Australia.
  67. Subramaniam, M., & Krishnan, P. (2016). Stranded between the law, family, and society: Women in domestic violence and rulings of India’s Supreme Court.Current Sociology. [CrossRef]
  68. Yadav, R. K. (2020). Recognition of Foreign Divorce Decree in India and Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriages: A Socio-Legal Study. Mahila Vidhi Bharti, Jan-March, 87-93.
  69. Kumar, V. (2021). Marriage or License to Rape? A Socio-Legal Analysis of Marital Rape in India. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
Prerpints.org logo

Preprints.org is a free preprint server supported by MDPI in Basel, Switzerland.

facebook logotwitter logolinkedin logo
bsky
MDPI Initiatives
Important Links
Subscribe

Disclaimer

Terms of Use

Privacy Policy

Privacy Settings

© 2025 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated