Factors Influencing Parental Involvement in Cambodian Lower Secondary Schools: The Role of Socioeconomic Status, Self-Efficacy, Expectations, and Beliefs

1. Introduction

A burgeoning body of research has highlighted the significance of parental involvement and its advantages for the success and well-being of students (Adamski et al., 2013; Castro et al., 2015; Fatou et al., 2016; Jaynes, 2017; Keng, 2009; Ma et al., 2016). Parental involvement explains how parents engage in and personally participate in a child's academic life. Simply, it refers to parental participation to promote their child’s educational and social success (You et al., 2016). With social cognitive theory emerging as an overarching feature in education, increasing attention has been paid to parental involvement as the key emphasis on the social influence on internal and external social reinforcement of student learning (Bandura, 1977). The theory considers the parents’ past experiences, which influence the expectations, efficacy, and involvement, and why they engage in that behavior. Drawing on the approach of quantitative inquiry, the present research helps to identify the typology of parental involvements that affect student learning and wellbeing, especially achievement.

Research shows a need for a more comprehensive, multidimensional analysis of parental involvement to account for diverse involvement types and cultural factors. Studies indicate that while parental involvement positively influences children’s educational outcomes, the magnitude and nature of this impact vary significantly depending on cultural norms, socioeconomic status, and educational practices (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Wilder, 2014). This lack of specificity suggests that further research could address contextual differences that shape parental involvement and outcomes more accurately. Previous studies have largely focused on parental involvement as a uniform factor without distinguishing between forms of involvement, such as direct academic support versus emotional support. This approach has led to conflicting results, as some studies find that certain forms of involvement have minimal or even negative impacts (Patall et al., 2008). Investigating how distinct types of parental involvement affect various aspects of achievement remains an essential gap to address, particularly in diverse educational systems (Hill & Craft, 2003).

Factors such as parental beliefs, expectations, and efficacy are often underexplored as dimensions of parental involvement. Research suggests that these psychological factors can influence both the type and quality of involvement but are seldom included in traditional measurements of parental involvement (Bandura et al., 1996; W. Fan et al., 2012). Most existing studies on parental involvement originate from Western contexts, leaving a gap in understanding its impact across diverse cultural settings. In non-Western contexts, the roles, and expectations of parents in education can differ significantly, making it essential to examine how involvement translates into educational outcomes in these regions (Jeynes, 2017; Park et al., 2011). Recent shifts in digital learning environments and socioeconomic changes have altered how parents engage in their children's education. However, studies have yet to explore fully how varying socioeconomic pressures influence the effectiveness of parental involvement in student learning (Duan et al., 2018; Poon, 2020; Smith, 2023). The results of the previous studies were contradictory and inconsistent to some extent; therefore, the purpose of the current study is to unpack the relationships between parental involvement and children’s achievement with a multidimensional conceptualization, as suggested by many researchers (Zong et al., 2017).

1.1. Parent’s Motivational Behavior (Self-Efficacy, Expectation, Belief)

Numerous studies have been conducted to measure the association between self-efficacy and involvement and how it influenced achievement. Self-efficacy tremendously plays a role in driving certain actions to achieve certain goals. One study found that there was a strong impact of self-efficacy on students’ academic performance and achievement (You et al., 2016). In addition, research has shown that parents’ attitude toward learning is positively linked to students’ academic achievement (Bong, 2008). And parents express their expectations to their children and impose educational expectations for them (Jeynes, 2005). According to Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler (1997), they have conducted the study about parents’ beliefs and found to have a significant association with student performance.

Another study has posited that academic socialization is important for student involvement and performance, where many types of conversations and interactions are being discussed by parents and their children. They possibly have a chance to exchange ideas, problems, and helps for their children, and educational expectations for their children and help them with schoolwork (Hill & Tyson, 2009). This elucidates that parental involvement might have different effects on students’ academic learning, depending on the type and the proximity of involvements. Therefore, more empirical studies are needed on the types of involvement that influence learning motivation, which in turn affects children’s academic achievement (You et al., 2016)

1.2. Socioeconomic Status (SES) of the Family

This study examines processes through which family economic status variably influences involvement in children's education and how these associations may vary by parental characteristics, such as education, the child's gender, and the type of work. It is equivocal for some reason to explain, to what extent, the relationship between parent’s socio-economic status and their involvement (Wang et al., 2016) . The socio-economic status of the parents produced positive and significant impacts on parental involvement. Many researchers reported that parents’ education is related to parental involvement (Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994; Pena, 2000). Another research finding posited that the parents who obtain higher education seem to create a more conducive learning environment at home, and they are interested in helping their child learn and make things possible to help bolster their child’s academic achievement (Georgiou & Tourva, 2007).

In line with socio-economic status, poor and less educated parents seem to have incredibly low expectations for their children compared to high-income and educated parents (Davis-Kean, 2005). However, low-income parents appear to get involved in their child's learning, both at home-based involvement and at school-based involvement, though they have a lower educational background to help their children’s learning (Benner et al., 2016). However, one study found that parents with low socio-economic status, who are from immigrant families, also get involved in the education of their children the same as the other parents who have high socio-economic status, but their involvements had an insignificant effect on student’s learning outcomes (Castro et al., 2015) .

It is also important to consider the significant associations between SES and student achievement. Numerous studies had been conducted about the relation between socio-economic status and academic achievement (Coleman, 1988; X. Fan & Chen, 2001; Sirin, 2005). However, the findings have not been conceptualized in an integrated way, and the findings of previous research conducted in this field reveal some contradictory results. It was found that there was a strong association between socio-economic status and student achievement. Another study has found a potential setback of lower socio-economic status in conjunction with a low level of parental involvement. However, little evidence was found to have valid supports that the low family SES could undermine the ways in which the parents choose to get involved with their child’s learning (Wang et al., 2016). With this uncertainty, the current research will add more empirical evidence to elucidate the relationship between socioeconomic status and parental involvement and measure the magnitude of the effects on achievement.

1.3. Parental Involvement in Cambodia Context

After the advent of Western assistance, NGOs increased their presence in the Cambodian education sector, expanding their work in the providing of training and technical assistance and conducting scientific research and need assessments for future development of education in Cambodia. The assistant influx has made slightly improvement in the short term (Ayres, 2000); however, leaving the education system in a state of crisis left by poor quality, irrelevant curriculum, inadequate training and low salary for teachers, inadequate materials, poor and decrepit school buildings, high drop-out rates, and educational disparity. Although the administration has proposed considerable efforts to boost the high quality of education in Cambodia by introducing numerous policies and programs, such as PAP, to reduce the barriers of equality and accessible schooling since this program had a strong effect on enrolments in basic compulsory education and reduce the expense of family burden (Nguon, 2012). However, parental involvement of children’s education in rural Cambodia is still a compelling challenge and impose more economic burden as their family conditions are already severe and critical, pressing pressures on the support of their children’s education. According to Keng (2009), from the parents’ perspective, despite the reduction in school fee or making school free for everyone, the opportunity cost of their children’s schooling such as clothes, foods, private tutoring, and learning material remain in the high demand and this high opportunity cost is exacerbated by the lower expectation that these parents have of the education sector.

1.4. Purposes of the Present Study

The effect of parental involvement is stronger and more direct for elementary students than middle students, due at least to the more complex school context and the dramatic development and change of parent-child relationships during adolescence (Hill & Tyson, 2009). The current study aims to enrich the literature by corroborating the horizon of parental involvement in student’s learning in the Cambodian context. Next, the study unfolds the relationship between the multi-dimensions of parental involvement . Using data from the survey questionnaires of parents of lower secondary school students, this research quantitatively seeks to answer the following research questions: (1) To what extent are parents involved in their children’s education? (2) How do the typologies of parents’ motivational behaviors affect parental involvement?

2. Method

2.1. Sampling

Quantitative method was employed in the current study and systematically gathered quantitative data from parents and used statistical analysis to generalize for specific populations. The present research was conducted in lower secondary schools in Takeo province. After disseminating the questionnaires, the return rate was high. 351 participants filled in the surveys and sent them back to the homeroom teachers. Since the participants in the study are solely the parents, the students brought the questionnaires to their parents. For urban schools, 149 respondents returned the questionnaire form. 202 respondents were from rural school areas.

2.2. Data Collection and Procedure

Before data collection, some bureaucracy work is required by the designated schools and departments. First, the researcher went to the department of education, youth, and sport to get an approval letter so that the researcher could get some assistance and permission from schools to collect my data. Upon the data dissemination, parents were asked to fill out a survey that includes demographic information, measurement of their level of involvement in their adolescent learning domain, and prediction to what extent their involvements. For the data collection, permissions were obtained from the principals of the lower secondary schools (Grade 7-9) to request parental participation in the survey. The school permission certificate was authorized and endorsed by the department of education, youth, and sports and the principals. The certificate could be found in the appendix section. The consent form and survey questions are distributed in the students' class, and the students are to take the information (consent form and survey questions) for their parents to complete and then collect them back to the classes and give them back to the teachers. The researcher then contacts the teachers and takes the survey data from the teachers and class monitors who oversaw the classroom. The following description explains the process and rationale of data collection collections.

2.3. Data Analysis and Measure

The quantitative data is analyzed by using SPSS 27. The raw data is entered into SPSS. The detail of descriptive statistics is described and discussed in Table 2. The study conducts several sets of correlation and regression analysis to examine the research questions of the study. First, we examined the relationship between parental involvement, parent behavior (Belief, Expectation, Self-efficacy), and family demographics. Multiple regressions are used to determine the combined effects of the independent variables (parent expectations, belief, self-efficacy, and SES) on two types of parental involvement (home-based and school-based involvement).

Parental involvement in children's education is categorized into 5 dimensions. The Parental Belief dimension focuses on parents' perceived responsibilities in supporting their children's education, such as volunteering at the school and communicating with teachers (Likert scale "Strongly disagree" (1) to "Strongly agree" (4)). For parental expectation, parents express their aspirations for their children’s academic success and future careers. Items like "I expect my child can complete a university course" are rated on the same four-point Likert scale. The parents’ self-efficacy dimension assesses parents' confidence in their ability to support their children's learning, such as "I know how to help my child do well in school" are evaluated using a four-point scale from "Strongly disagree" (1) to "Strongly agree" (4). Home-Based Involvement measures the extent of parental engagement in daily educational activities at home, while the school-based involvement dimension evaluates parents' participation in school activities and communication with educators. The items rated on a five-point scale from "Never" (1) to "Always" (5) (see Table 2).

The reliability of the dimensions measuring parental involvement was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (See Table 1), with the following results: parental belief (α = .76), parental expectation (α = .79), parent's self-efficacy (α = .84), home-based involvement (α = .78), and school-based involvement (α = .89). The alpha values indicate acceptable to good internal consistency across the various dimensions, suggesting that the items within each dimension reliably measure the same underlying constructs. Specifically, values above .70 are generally considered acceptable, while values above .80 are regarded as good, and those above .90 as excellent (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011).

3. Results

The findings of current study were to examine the relations between the multi-dimensions of parental involvement. Initially, this study was conducted to examine as follows (a) to what extent the parents affect the student schooling (b) the differential relations between typologies of parents’ motivational behaviors and SES and its influences on different dimensions of parental involvement (e.g. home-based involvement, school-based involvement).

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics presented in Table 2 summarize item-level responses across various dimensions related to parental involvement. The Belief dimension shows moderate levels of agreement among parents, with means ranging from 2.92 to 3.34. Notably, parents reported the highest mean for the item "help my child with homework" (M = 3.34, SD = 0.66), indicating a strong belief in their role in assisting with homework, while the item "talk with other parents from my child’s school" had the lowest mean (M = 2.92, SD = 0.68), suggesting less engagement in peer discussions about school. Parents expressed relatively high expectations for their children's future academic success, with means between 3.37 and 3.42. The item "I expect my child has a good salary in the future" received the highest mean score (M = 3.42, SD = 0.61), reflecting optimistic views about their children's prospects.

The self-efficacy dimension revealed mixed feelings among parents regarding their ability to support their children's education. It suggested that some parents feel less confident in their abilities.

Regarding home-based involvement, parents reported high levels of engagement, with means ranging from 3.59 to 4.68. The highest mean was for "making sure child is attending school" (M = 4.68, SD = 0.71), indicating a strong commitment to ensuring attendance, while "limiting the amount of time child watches TV" had a lower mean (M = 3.59, SD = 1.23), suggesting variability in this behavior. In terms of school-based involvement, mean scores were generally lower, ranging from 2.50 to 3.79, indicating less frequent engagement in school activities compared to home-based involvement. The item "engaging in school events" had the lowest mean (M = 2.84, SD = 1.27), while "I receive information on child development" had a higher mean (M = 3.79, SD = 1.06), suggesting that while parents may receive information, active participation in school events is less common.

Table 2. Summary of Item-level Descriptive Statistics (N = 351).

Dimensions	Items	Mean	SD
Belief	…volunteer at the school.	2.95	0.74
	…communicate with my child’s teacher regularly	3.21	0.65
	…explain difficult assignment to my child	3.24	0.70
	…talk with other parents from my child’s school	2.92	0.68
	…make the school better	3.12	0.69
	…help my child with homework	3.34	0.66
Expectation	I expect my child can complete university course.	3.4	0.62
	I expect my child has good academic result.	3.4	0.55
	I have clear expectation on my child’s academic performance.	3.38	0.53
	I expect my child has good salary in the future.	3.42	0.61
	I expect that my child can learn a specific skill.	3.37	0.58
Self-Efficacy	I know how to help my child to do well in school	3.14	0.60
	I do not know if I am getting through with my child	2.36	0.87
	I don’t know how to help my child get good grade in school	2.48	0.82
	I feel successful about my efforts to help child learn.	3.34	0.57
	I don’t know how to help my child learn.	2.31	0.82
	I can make an important difference to my children	2.36	0.83
	I can help my child to do the homework	3.12	0.65
	I can help my child succeed in school	3.25	0.69
Home-based Involvement	Making sure child is attending school	4.68	0.71
	Providing consistent encouragement	4.55	0.68
	Providing ideal home learning environment (study desk, study room. . .)	4.29	0.99
	Doing additional household chores to allow child more time to do homework	4.28	0.87
	Supporting child to attend private tutoring	4.54	0.86
	Checking whether child has completed homework	4.05	0.96
	Limiting the amount of time child watches TV	3.59	1.23
	Talking with child about school-related issues	3.83	1.07
School-based Involvement	Engaging in school events	2.84	1.27
	Participating in school meetings about improving school	2.58	1.31
	Consulting with teachers about student performance	2.99	1.24
	Responding to teacher requests for meetings regarding student behavior	2.95	1.40
	I receive information on what I can do at home to help my child improve or advance his/her learning.	3.66	1.21
	I receive information on child development.	3.79	1.06
	My child’s teacher asks to meet with me face to face at least once a year to talk about how my child is doing.	2.71	1.45
	My child’s school is very good about staying in touch with me (e.g., letters, phone calls or e-mails).	2.9	1.37
	If I have a question, concern or comment about my child the teacher, principal or guidance counselor gets back to me right away	2.5	1.31
	I am invited to meetings so that I can learn about what is going on in the school (e.g., issues or policies).	2.73	1.46

Table 2. Summary of Item-level Descriptive Statistics (N = 351).

Dimensions	Items	Mean	SD
Belief	…volunteer at the school.	2.95	0.74
	…communicate with my child’s teacher regularly	3.21	0.65
	…explain difficult assignment to my child	3.24	0.70
	…talk with other parents from my child’s school	2.92	0.68
	…make the school better	3.12	0.69
	…help my child with homework	3.34	0.66
Expectation	I expect my child can complete university course.	3.4	0.62
	I expect my child has good academic result.	3.4	0.55
	I have clear expectation on my child’s academic performance.	3.38	0.53
	I expect my child has good salary in the future.	3.42	0.61
	I expect that my child can learn a specific skill.	3.37	0.58
Self-Efficacy	I know how to help my child to do well in school	3.14	0.60
	I do not know if I am getting through with my child	2.36	0.87
	I don’t know how to help my child get good grade in school	2.48	0.82
	I feel successful about my efforts to help child learn.	3.34	0.57
	I don’t know how to help my child learn.	2.31	0.82
	I can make an important difference to my children	2.36	0.83
	I can help my child to do the homework	3.12	0.65
	I can help my child succeed in school	3.25	0.69
Home-based Involvement	Making sure child is attending school	4.68	0.71
	Providing consistent encouragement	4.55	0.68
	Providing ideal home learning environment (study desk, study room. . .)	4.29	0.99
	Doing additional household chores to allow child more time to do homework	4.28	0.87
	Supporting child to attend private tutoring	4.54	0.86
	Checking whether child has completed homework	4.05	0.96
	Limiting the amount of time child watches TV	3.59	1.23
	Talking with child about school-related issues	3.83	1.07
School-based Involvement	Engaging in school events	2.84	1.27
	Participating in school meetings about improving school	2.58	1.31
	Consulting with teachers about student performance	2.99	1.24
	Responding to teacher requests for meetings regarding student behavior	2.95	1.40
	I receive information on what I can do at home to help my child improve or advance his/her learning.	3.66	1.21
	I receive information on child development.	3.79	1.06
	My child’s teacher asks to meet with me face to face at least once a year to talk about how my child is doing.	2.71	1.45
	My child’s school is very good about staying in touch with me (e.g., letters, phone calls or e-mails).	2.9	1.37
	If I have a question, concern or comment about my child the teacher, principal or guidance counselor gets back to me right away	2.5	1.31
	I am invited to meetings so that I can learn about what is going on in the school (e.g., issues or policies).	2.73	1.46

The results in Table 3 indicate no significant differences between rural and urban parents regarding parental belief, school-based involvement, home-based involvement, parental expectation, and self-efficacy (all p > .05). Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted, suggesting that parents in both areas exhibit similar levels of involvement and expectations concerning their children's education.

3.2. The Relationship Between Parent’s Motivational Behavior and Parental Involvement

The multivariate Pearson correlations were conducted to examine the linear relationships among various parental involvement dimensions and socioeconomic status (SES) within a sample of 351 participants.

The results, summarized in Table 4, reveal several noteworthy correlations. SES exhibited a negative correlation with parent self-efficacy (r = -0.211, p <.01), indicating that higher SES is associated with lower self-efficacy perceptions among parents. Conversely, parental belief showed a positive correlation with parental expectation (r = 0.468, p <.01), suggesting that parents who hold strong beliefs about their roles in education also have higher expectations for their children's academic success. Additionally, both school-based involvement and home-based involvement were positively correlated with parental expectation (r = 0.264, p <.01; r = 0.356, p <.01, respectively), indicating that parents who expect more from their children are more likely to be involved in both school and home settings. Furthermore, home-based involvement demonstrated the strongest correlation with school-based involvement (r = 0.452, p <.01), highlighting the interconnectedness of parental engagement across different contexts.

3.3. The Effects of Motivational Behaviors and SES on School-based Involvement

The effects of motivational behaviors and socioeconomic status (SES) on school-based involvement were examined through regression analysis. The model, which included predictors such as parental expectation, belief, self-efficacy, and SES, significantly explained 15.4% of the variance in school-based involvement, F(6, 344) = 10.409, p <.001 (See Table 5). This result indicates that these factors collectively contribute to parents' participation in school-based activities.

Parental belief was the strongest predictor of school-based involvement, with a standardized coefficient of β =.269 (p <.001). This suggests that parents who hold strong beliefs regarding their role in their child's education are more likely to engage actively in school-related activities. Parental self-efficacy also significantly predicted school-based involvement (β =.129, p <.05), indicating that parents who feel confident in their ability to support their child’s education tend to participate more in school activities. SES was another significant predictor (β =.139, p <.05), suggesting that families with higher socioeconomic status are more involved in school-based engagement.

In contrast, factors such as locality, a child's gender, and parental expectation did not significantly predict school-based involvement. The correlation among the variables was moderate (r = 0.392), and the coefficient of determination (R² =.154) further confirmed that the model accounted for 15.4% of the variance in school-based involvement.

3.4. The Effects of Motivational Behaviors and SES on Home-based Involvement

Regression analysis examined the effects of motivational behaviors and SES on home-based involvement. The overall model significantly explained 16.1% of the variance in home-based involvement, F(6, 344) = 10.99, p <.001 (see Table 6). This suggests that the predictors included in the model account for a meaningful portion of home-based involvement variability. Among the predictors, parental belief was a significant factor, with a standardized beta coefficient of β =.189 (p <.001). This indicates that stronger parental beliefs about involvement are positively associated with increased home-based engagement, implying that when parents view their role in supporting their children’s learning as important, they are more actively involved at home. Similarly, parental expectation was a significant predictor of home-based involvement (β =.251, p <.001), suggesting that parents with higher expectations for their children’s success are more likely to engage in supportive activities at home. However, parental self-efficacy did not emerge as a significant predictor (β =.058, p =.259), indicating no strong association between parents’ confidence in their ability to assist their children and their level of home-based involvement. Additionally, SES was not a significant predictor (β =.073, p =.223), suggesting that socioeconomic factors alone may not directly influence the extent of home-based involvement.

4. Discussions

The present study examined the multidimensional influences of socioeconomic status (SES), parental beliefs, expectations, and self-efficacy on parental involvement in Cambodian lower secondary schools. Consistent with previous research, the findings highlight the complexity of parental involvement, which encompasses both home-based and school-based activities (Castro et al., 2015; Wilder, 2014). Notably, while SES positively influenced school-based involvement, it was not a significant predictor of home-based involvement. This distinction suggests that SES may facilitate engagement in school-related activities, possibly due to increased access to resources, as indicated in studies by Benner et al. (2016) and Cabus & Ariës (2017). However, home-based involvement appears less dependent on SES, implying that parents from all socioeconomic backgrounds may engage similarly in supporting their child’s learning environment at home.

The role of parental beliefs emerged as a strong predictor of both home- and school-based involvement. Parents who held positive beliefs about their roles in supporting their children’s education demonstrated more frequent involvement, aligning with the social cognitive theory of self-efficacy by Bandura (1977). Recent studies affirm that parental belief and commitment to educational involvement foster higher engagement, particularly when parents perceive a strong sense of responsibility in facilitating learning outcomes (W. Fan et al., 2012; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). The positive correlation between parental beliefs and expectations further underscores this relationship, echoing findings from previous research suggesting that when parents have high educational expectations, they are more engaged across contexts (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Wang et al., 2023).

Interestingly, parental self-efficacy did not significantly predict home-based involvement, contrary to findings by Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994), which indicated a positive link between self-efficacy and parental engagement. This inconsistency may be contextual; as You et al. (2016) argued, the impact of self-efficacy may vary based on cultural and socioeconomic contexts, possibly reflecting unique challenges faced by Cambodian parents in supporting their children academically. Studies in recent years have increasingly noted this variation in self-efficacy’s impact on parental involvement, as it may be mediated by cultural factors and the availability of resources that bolster parents’ confidence in helping with academic tasks (Duan et al., 2018; Poon, 2020). Additionally, the lack of significant effects on home-based involvement suggests that self-efficacy might not solely drive parental engagement within the home. Instead, factors such as perceived roles and beliefs may play a more influential role, as found by W. Fan et al. (2012).

The findings also suggest a limited role of gender and locality in predicting parental involvement. These results parallel research by Wang et al. (2016)Wang et al., which reported that demographic factors might not uniformly impact involvement. This finding holds relevance in the Cambodian context, where economic and resource-related challenges overshadow other demographic influences (Nguon, 2012). The similarity in parental involvement across urban and rural areas may suggest shared motivations or barriers to engagement, as highlighted in the literature on educational access in resource-limited settings (Keng, 2009). Current literature also emphasizes the resilience of parental involvement across socioeconomic divides, highlighting that despite resource scarcity, parents in diverse educational settings actively seek to support their children's education (Adamski et al., 2013; Smith, 2023).

Furthermore, the study’s implications support previous calls for a more nuanced understanding of parental involvement across diverse educational settings (Wilder, 2014). Cambodian parents in this study appeared committed to their children's education despite economic constraints, indicating that involvement can persist even when resources are limited. This reflects broader findings that SES does not inherently limit parental engagement but may shape the forms of involvement that parents can feasibly adopt (Davis-Kean, 2005; Duan et al., 2018; Sirin, 2005). Additionally, recent studies show that digital platforms can offer alternative ways for parents to engage, even in low-resource contexts, suggesting opportunities for enhanced engagement if digital resources become more accessible in Cambodia (Smith, 2023).

5. Conclusion and Implications of the Study

The current study provides valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of parental involvement in Cambodian lower secondary schools, examining the roles of SES, parental beliefs, expectations, and self-efficacy. The findings show that parental beliefs and expectations significantly predict involvement in both home- and school-based activities, while SES predominantly influences school-based engagement. This highlights the resilience of Cambodian parents who, despite economic challenges, remain dedicated to supporting their children’s education through home-based involvement. The results align with studies that suggest SES does not solely determine parental engagement, but rather influences the form and context of involvement (Benner et al., 2016; Castro et al., 2015; Davis-Kean, 2005).

5.1. Implications

Given the essential role of parental beliefs and expectations in fostering both home- and school-based involvement, strategies to empower parents could significantly enhance educational engagement. Schools and educational stakeholders could implement informational programs and workshops to strengthen parental beliefs in their roles, helping parents recognize their impact on their children’s academic success (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997; Wang et al., 2023). Leveraging community outreach could further bridge the gap for parents in rural areas, offering support and resources that boost their confidence and involvement regardless of socioeconomic background (Nguon, 2012).

Although SES did not predict home-based involvement, it positively influenced school-based involvement, likely due to the increased access to resources that higher SES parents enjoy. This finding suggests that Cambodian education authorities should consider targeted support for economically disadvantaged families, who may face barriers to participating in school-based activities (Duan et al., 2018; Poon, 2020). Financial support or subsidized resources could help parents of all socioeconomic backgrounds engage more fully with schools, reducing educational inequities and enhancing overall student outcomes (Fan & Chen, 2001).

Recent research highlights the potential of digital resources to bridge gaps in parental engagement across socioeconomic divides, particularly in low-income contexts (Smith, 2023). Cambodian schools could adopt technology-based initiatives to facilitate virtual parent-teacher interactions and provide accessible, ongoing information on how parents can support their children’s learning from home. By leveraging digital tools, schools may increase parental engagement and access to information, even in remote areas, promoting a more equitable educational experience (Adamski et al., 2013; Duan et al., 2018).

5.2. Directions for Future Research

While the present study relied on cross-sectional data, future research should consider longitudinal approaches to track the impact of parental involvement over time. Additionally, incorporating diverse perspectives, such as those of students and teachers, would offer a more holistic view of how parental involvement interacts with motivational behaviors and SES in Cambodian educational settings (Wilder, 2014). Research that includes mixed methods, potentially incorporating qualitative insights, could enrich our understanding of the nuanced influences shaping parental involvement in Cambodia, especially as digital resources and economic conditions evolve.