Regular Physical Activity and Life Satisfaction: Unpacking the Roles of Self-Control and Emotion Regulation

1. Introduction

Quality of life and psychological well-being play crucial roles in an individual’s functioning, influencing their ability to cope effectively with difficulties, establish satisfying social relationships, and achieve their goals. Life satisfaction has attracted particular attention because it is considered an essential component of subjective well-being. Life satisfaction is understood to be a cognitive evaluation of one’s quality of life based on individual criteria. Although research on life satisfaction has been ongoing for many years, it remains a complex concept requiring further exploration. Life satisfaction plays a key role in shaping one’s attitude toward their own existence, fostering the experience of positive emotions, and reducing the occurrence of negative feelings, thus serving as an important element of subjective well-being and a broadly defined quality of life [1,2]. It is also important to distinguish life satisfaction from related constructs such as happiness and quality of life. Happiness is often understood as the immediate experience of positive emotions, whereas life satisfaction represents a more enduring cognitive assessment of overall quality of life [3]. In addition, life satisfaction is a component of subjective well-being, along with affective balance, which measures the prevalence of positive versus negative emotions [4]. Assessing one's overall life satisfaction encompasses various domains, such as well-being, social connections, and economic status, and can be considered across the temporal dimensions of the past, present, and future. People integrate evaluations from different facets of their lives to create a comprehensive view of their life satisfaction. A quantitative assessment of the overall feeling of satisfaction can be conducted using a one-dimensional self-evaluation tool [5].

One factor that may be important for achieving a high level of life satisfaction is regular physical activity at an appropriate intensity. Current research has shown that regular exercise benefits both physical and mental health. Participation in sports training reduces stress and positively affects life satisfaction [6,7]. Physical activity has important implications for well-being regardless of age, and on days when people are more physically active than typical, they report greater life satisfaction [8]. During emerging adulthood (18-25 years), people's global assessment of their well-being appears to deteriorate more than at any other time, but daily physical activity has a positive impact on emerging adults' life satisfaction [9]. Additional research findings, also including longitudinal studies indicate that engaging in long–term and regular physical activity is linked to higher subjective well–being and more effective coping with negative emotions [10,11,12,13]. Recent research has also underscored that regular physical activity is consistently associated with improved subjective well-being across diverse populations. A meta-analysis by Buecker et al. (2021) demonstrated a positive association between physical activity and well-being in healthy individuals across different age groups and activity types. Similarly, a systematic review by Marquez et al. (2020) confirmed that physical activity significantly improves quality of life and well-being in adults and older adults [14,15].

The link between physical activity and life satisfaction seems to be well established, so it is now worth focusing on identifying factors that might further explain this relationship. Accordingly, the authors examined the mediators between physical activity and life satisfaction by analyzing different determinants. Deng et al. (2023) explored the influence of physical activity on life satisfaction through self-efficacy and resilience. Using validated scales and statistical analyses, this study found that physical activity positively impacts life satisfaction, both directly and indirectly. Self-efficacy and resilience were identified as mediators in this relationship, with a significant effect of these factors amplifying the impact of physical activity on life satisfaction [16]. Other results have indicated that physical activity positively impacts self-esteem and life satisfaction while reducing social-physique anxiety. Social-physique anxiety was found to mediate the relationship between physical activity and life satisfaction, whereas self-esteem mediated the link between social-physique anxiety and life satisfaction. These findings highlight the dual pathways through which physical activity promotes psychological well-being. By mitigating social-physique anxiety and fostering self-esteem, physical activity directly and indirectly improves life satisfaction [17].

Researchers recommend that the causal relationship between sports participation and psychosocial health should be further investigated and that the conceptual model of health through sports should be tested [7]. Therefore, in this article, we attempt to clarify the mechanism by which physical activity may influence life satisfaction, and look for additional psychological variables that may mediate this relationship.

The increase in life satisfaction resulting from physical activity can be explained by the fact that regular participation in sports is associated with enhanced overall health status, which has a considerable influence on life satisfaction [18]. Regular physical activity is essential to prevent chronic diseases by improving immune function, blood pressure, and insulin sensitivity. Research has highlighted its role in reducing mortality risk and improving mental health [19,20]. Individuals with severe or chronic illnesses had significantly worse subjective well–being and lower life satisfaction [18,21,22]. In addition, people often train in sports clubs where they experience social integration, which may enhance well–being by reducing feelings of loneliness and fulfilling the need to belong [6,23,24,25].

One of the most important psychological variables related to life satisfaction is self-control, which can be defined as the ability to change one’s behaviors or reactions and suppress undesirable impulses to effectively adjust to a given situation. Self–control plays a crucial role in motivational conflicts, where individuals must resist a pleasurable temptation to satisfy a long–term goal [26,27]. Individuals who control their reactions less frequently are considered to have lower dispositional self–control [27,28]. Self–control positively contributes to well–being by dealing with motivational conflicts, and its level is a significant predictor of life satisfaction [26].

Baumeister’s strength model of self-control further explains that self-control operates like a muscle, requiring discipline, persistence, and effort, which can be strengthened through consistent practice, such as physical exercise [29]. Exercise trains self-control by challenging individuals to overcome short-term discomfort for long-term benefits, enhancing focus, stress regulation, and resilience [30]. This improved self-control not only supports consistent exercise, but also transfers it to other life domains, fostering goal achievement, emotional stability, and overall well-being [26,27].

In addition to self-control, emotion regulation is an important factor contributing to life satisfaction. Emotion regulation refers to the set of processes involved in monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions by initiating, suppressing, or modulating them [31,32]. The emotion regulation model developed by James Gross is one of the most widely accepted approaches to understanding how people regulate their emotions. The author suggested that emotions develop over time and can be influenced by different stages. Within this model, Gross focuses on two common forms of emotion regulation. The first strategy is cognitive modification or reinterpretation of a situation to change its emotional meaning, which also plays a key role. For example, a stressful situation, such as giving a public speech, can be seen not as a potential failure, but as an opportunity to demonstrate one's abilities. The second strategy is response modulation, which involves controlling the expression of emotions and the physiological responses of the body. This may involve, for example, inhibiting anger or hiding sadness [33]. Different emotion regulation strategies have different consequences on well-being, interpersonal relationships, and mental health. Strategies such as reappraisal (cognitive change) tend to be more adaptive than those such as expressive suppression (response modulation) [34,35,36].

Gross and John’s emotion regulation model connects cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression to exercise and contentment with life by emphasizing their impact on emotional health. Cognitive reappraisal, which involves changing one's perspective on situations to modify emotional effects, works in tandem with physical activity to boost mood, psychological resilience, and positive feelings, ultimately enhancing life satisfaction. On the other hand, expressive suppression, which involves restraining outward displays of emotion, can potentially counteract these advantages by elevating stress levels and diminishing emotional genuineness, although engaging in physical activity may help offset some of its negative consequences. In summary, effective regulation strategies, such as reappraisal, when combined with regular exercise, contribute to optimal well-being and overall life satisfaction [37,38].

Studies have shown that engaging in physical activity can have positive effects not only on well-being but also on self-regulation [39]. The level of self-control is positively associated with physical activity. People exercise more on days when their self-control is high than on days when their self-control is low [40]. Additionally, people with low self-control benefit from physical activity. Research has indicated that regular physical activity can improve self–control. Three months of martial arts training can directly improve self–control in elementary school students [41], and five weeks of aerobic exercise may be an effective intervention to enhance self–control in college students [42]. Other studies have indicated that light-to-moderate physical exercise may be beneficial for executive control functions, which may be linked to higher dispositional self–control [43,44]. Regular physical activity can be beneficial for emotional regulation by promoting adaptive forms [45]. Both endurance and coordinative exercise training have been shown to positively influence certain aspects of emotion regulation and social cognition, including empathy [46]. Similarly, an eight-week intervention focusing on mind-body exercises was found to improve implicit emotion regulation skills [47]. Making progress in training requires a high level of self–regulation and self–motivation [48,49,50]. Therefore, self–control and emotional regulation may play important roles in the relationship between physical activity and life satisfaction.

The main objective of this study was to examine the potential mediating effects of self-control and two common forms of emotion regulation: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, on the relationship between engagement in regular physical activity and life satisfaction. It was hypothesized that regular physical activity would positively influence self-control and the use of cognitive reappraisal as an adaptive form of emotion regulation while reducing reliance on expressive suppression, which is considered a less adaptive strategy. In turn, higher levels of self-control and more effective emotion regulation strategies were expected to contribute to greater life satisfaction. This sequential pathway was intended to capture the indirect mechanisms through which physical activity might enhance overall well-being. For this purpose, we examined participants who did not regularly participate in any training and those who reported exercising regularly for at least one year. The latter were classified into three groups based on the average training time. We aimed to investigate whether self–control and emotion regulation mediate the effect of involvement in physical activity on life satisfaction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants and Study Design

The study was conducted on a group of 186 adults (91% women) who completed the survey. The mean age of the respondents was 20.7, with standard deviation 2.92. Fifty-six subjects (mean age 20.5, with standard deviation, 2.40) attended regular training (32% under coach supervision) for at least 1 year (mean 6.21 years). The remaining 130 participants (mean age 20.8, with a standard deviation of 3.12) did not do regular physical activity. This study employed a cross-sectional design and utilized self-report methodology for data collection.

2.2. Data Collection

The data were collected via online social networking, mainly among university students, using an online survey platform called Lime Survey. Participants completed the survey anonymously and provided background information regarding age and gender. No personal information was collected to identify the respondents. The first page of the web-based survey form informed participants that their participation in the study was voluntary and confidential and that they may withdraw from the study at any time. Before the survey, the participants confirmed that they had read the study information and participation rules and agreed to participate voluntarily. Ethical approval was obtained from the University of the National Education Commission, Krakow.

2.3. Measurements

First, we asked questions related to background information, including participants’ age, sex, place of residence, and participation in regular physical activities for at least 1 year. Respondents answered self–report questionnaires on the variables studied.

2.3.1. The Level of Involvement in Physical Activity

The physical activity level (PA level) of the subjects who reported regular training was assessed based on the reported average number of minutes spent training per week. The assessment of PA level followed the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior [51], which recommend that adults should engage in 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week, or 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity, or an equivalent combination of both. Based on these guidelines, we categorized regularly trained individuals into three PA levels: 1 – less-active individuals (17 subjects engaging in regular physical activity below WHO guidelines); 2 – active individuals (25 subjects engaging in regular physical activity according to WHO guidelines); and 3 – more-active individuals (14 subjects engaging in regular physical activity beyond WHO guidelines). In addition, 130 participants who reported not regularly training (130 subjects) were assigned a PA level of 0.

2.3.2. Satisfaction with Life Scale

The cognitive–judgmental aspect of subjective well-being was assessed using the Polish version of The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) [52] created by Diener et al. [53]. The five positively worded statements included in this tool were rated on a seven–point Likert–type scale. The summed score ranges from 5 to 35, with higher values indicating greater satisfaction with life. The Polish version of the SWLS has good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.86) and temporal stability. Test–retest reliability in 3–week intervals was 0.85–0.93; in 6–week intervals it was 0.87–0.88; in the 9–week interval, it was 0.86 [52].

2.3.3. Brief Self–Control Scale

To assess dispositional self–control, we used the Brief Self–Control Scale (BSCS) developed by Tangney et al. [27] and adapted into Polish by Pilarska and Baumeister [54]. This questionnaire contains thirteen statements (nine negatively worded) rated on a five–point Likert–type scale. After reverse coding negatively worded statements and summing all answers, we obtained a total score (high values reflect greater self–control). The Polish version of the BSCS has good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha: 0.84) and satisfactory temporal stability in a 2–week test–retest (Pearson correlation for test–retest: 0.87).

2.3.4. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire

To assess aspects of emotion regulation, we used the Polish version of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) [55] developed by Gross and John [34]. Participants were asked to evaluate their personal emotion regulation strategies using ten items on a seven-point Likert scale. The scores obtained on the two ERQ scales assess two aspects of emotion regulation: “expressive suppression” (four items) and “cognitive reappraisal” (six items). Higher scores on both scales indicated a stronger tendency to use these two strategies. The internal consistency of the ERQ scales, as assessed by Cronbach’s α was 0.77 for Reappraisal and 0.74 for Suppression [56].

2.4. Statistical Analysis

First, descriptive statistics of the scores on the scales of the questionnaire tool were analyzed. Means with 95% confidence intervals and medians were used as measures of central tendency. Standard deviations and interquartile ranges were used to describe the dispersion of the scores. Possible deviations from normality, in terms of the shape and normality of the score distribution, were assessed using skewness and kurtosis. Correlation analysis was then performed with a two–tailed significance test and 95% confidence intervals between the scores on the scales of the questionnaire tool and the amount of time spent in regular physical activity and life satisfaction. Pearson's or Spearman's correlation coefficients were used depending on the level of measurement of the variables studied. A p–value of < 0.05 was used as the threshold for statistical significance.

Mediation analysis in the structural equation modeling approach was then used to test whether self–control, suppression, and reappraisal mediated the impact of the amount of time spent in regular physical activity on satisfaction with life. Therefore, in our analytical approach, the categorized amount of time spent in regular physical activity was the explanatory variable, the SWLS scores were the response variable, while the BSCS scores and the two ERQ subscales were the mediating variables. No violation of the model assumptions regarding homoscedasticity was found by visual inspection of the residual scatter plots. As the level of measurement of the categorized amount of time spent in regular physical activity was ordinal, the diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) estimation method was chosen. Standardized parameter estimates for indirect, direct, and total effects were calculated and tested for significance using bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals. The accelerated bias–corrected percentile bootstrap method with 5000 resamples was used. Parameter estimates were considered significant at the 0.05 threshold if the bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals around them did not include zero. As all questions in the online form were mandatory, the dataset analyzed was entirely complete, eliminating the need for any methods to address missing values. The R-squared values for the mediating and dependent variables were reported to assess the strength and explanatory power of the proposed model. Statistical analyses were performed using the open-source software jamovi [57], based on the R programming language [58] for statistical computing. The jamovi SEMLj module for structural equation modelling was employed to conduct mediation analysis. [59]. The path diagram was created using draw.io desktop, which is a graph-drawing, open-source application.

3. Results

The descriptive statistics for the BSCS, ERQ, and SWLS scores are shown in Table 1. The skewness and kurtosis values were all less than one, indicating that their distribution did not substantially deviate from normality.

Correlations between self–control, suppression, reappraisal, life satisfaction, and amount of time spent on regular physical activity are shown in Table 2. Scores on the suppression scale of the ERQ were not significantly correlated with scores on the ERQ reappraisal scale and BSCS. The correlation coefficient between reappraisal and self–control is 0.25, indicating a positive but modest relationship between these two variables. The correlation coefficients between the SWLS scores and self–control and reappraisal are 0.43 and 0.41, indicating that life satisfaction is positively and moderately related to these two variables. The correlation coefficient between satisfaction with life and suppression was –0.27, indicating a modestly negative relationship. Time spent in regular physical activity was positively correlated with self–control (0.34), reappraisal (0.15), and life satisfaction (0.25) but was not significantly associated with suppression.

The mediation analysis results showed that self–control and cognitive reappraisal mediated the relationship between level of participation in regular physical activity and satisfaction with life. Higher levels of participation in regular physical activity were associated with greater self–control and reappraisal, which in turn led to greater satisfaction with life. The indirect effect of emotional suppression was close to zero and not statistically significant. Level of involvement in regular physical activity had no direct relationship with life satisfaction. The R-squared value of the dependent variable (SWLS) is 0.296. Detailed results of the mediation analysis are presented in Table 3 and Figure 1.

4. Discussion

This study is one of the first to investigate whether self–control and distinct aspects of emotion regulation play an intermediate role in the relationship between involvement in regular physical activity and life satisfaction. We found that the level of involvement in physical activity, as expressed by the average weekly training time, is indirectly related to life satisfaction through indirect pathways that lead through self–control and cognitive reappraisal. Regular physical activity has been associated with improvements in life satisfaction, partly because of its effects on self-control and cognitive reappraisal. This relationship is rooted in the psychological benefits of physical activity, which enhance an individual's ability to manage emotions effectively and prioritize long-term goals over immediate impulses [26,34,35]. As outlined in Baumeister's strength model, self-control functions as a muscle that can be strengthened through consistent physical exercise, resulting in improved goal achievement and emotional stability [30]. This means that regular training is related to high self–control and cognitive reappraisal, which consequently increases life satisfaction. The results obtained are consistent with those of previous studies, which showed that physical activity plays a critical role in enhancing self-control, emotion regulation, and overall psychological well-being. Regular exercise is an effective strategy for maintaining mental health and emotional resilience by promoting positive emotional states, reducing stress, and lowering the risk of depression, regular exercise is an effective strategy for maintaining mental health and emotional resilience [7,12,60]. Training intensity is also associated with well–being, positive affect, and negatively associated with depression [61,62,63]. Regular physical activity may enhance self–control and adaptive emotion regulation strategies [42,43,44,45,46,47]. Sports practitioners often use more flexible and effective strategies for emotion regulation, adapting them to the demands of the situation [45]. The link between regular physical activity and self-control has been documented, with evidence suggesting that consistent exercise fosters self-regulation skills and the ability to adapt emotion regulation strategies to dynamic challenges [39,45]. Previous findings have also shown that cognitive regulatory strategies such as reappraisal can improve mood and promote emotional well–being [35]. Cognitive reappraisal, a key component of adaptive emotion regulation, enables individuals to reinterpret stressful situations positively, which when combined with physical activity, contributes to elevated life satisfaction [34]. People who prefer reappraisal can cope more effectively with negative emotions, and expressive suppression is associated with reduced well–being [34,64]. An R-squared value of approximately 30% indicated that engagement in regular physical activity and the mediating variables (self-control, cognitive reappraisal, and expressive suppression) together accounted for a moderate amount of variance in life satisfaction. This finding highlights the importance of both behavioral (physical activity) and psychological (self-control and emotion regulation) factors as pathways to well-being, and emphasizes the indirect effects in the causal chain. This underscores the complexity of life satisfaction and suggests that interventions that promote physical activity alongside psychological skills, such as self-control and adaptive emotion regulation, could significantly improve overall well-being.

The results further broaden the understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between physical activity and life satisfaction by identifying self-control and cognitive reappraisal as key mediators. Consistent with previous studies highlighting the role of self-efficacy, resilience, self-esteem, and social anxiety [16,17], our results identified additional pathways through which physical activity enhances psychological well-being. Specifically, individuals who engaged in regular physical activity reported higher levels of self-control and a greater tendency to use cognitive reappraisal strategies, both of which were significantly associated with improved life satisfaction. These mediators suggest that physical activity not only promotes emotional regulation through cognitive reappraisal but also strengthens self-discipline, thereby facilitating more adaptive responses to challenges. This dual pathway complements and extends the existing models of the psychological benefits of physical activity, highlighting its multifaceted effects on life satisfaction.

On the other hand, some analyses indicate that more physical activity does not lead to better outcomes, and the minutes spent on vigorous–intensity activity may reduce the level of subjective well–being [65,66]. However, these studies only focused on physical activity in the last week and did not consider overall training time throughout life. While physical activity is generally beneficial, the relationship may vary depending on intensity and individual circumstances. This underscores the need for personalized approaches to exercise routines. Our study examined people who had been engaged in regular training for at least a year. Regular participation in training leads to increased endurance and strength of the participants, which can mitigate the negative effects of high–intensity training. Additionally, regular training may improve self–control [39,42], which is a significant predictor of life satisfaction [26]. Therefore, our results show that regular physical activity improves practitioners’ life satisfaction, regardless of the level of involvement in training.

In our previous study, we examined the mediating effects of self–control and emotion regulation on the relationship between regular karate training and life satisfaction [67]. Eastern martial arts, as a specific form of physical activity, can improve practitioners’ discipline and self–control of the practitioners [39,41,68]. This study shows that other regular physical activities may also increase life satisfaction by improving self–control and using more adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal.

4.1. Limitations and Further Research Directions

This study was limited by its cross-sectional design, which does not allow for the direct establishment of causal relationships. Mediation analyses based on cross-sectional data may yield biased estimates of indirect effects owing to the lack of temporal sequencing, potentially leading to inaccurate or misleading interpretations. Therefore, inferring longitudinal mediation processes from cross-sectional analyses should be approached cautiously. Despite these limitations, the cross-sectional design serves as an appropriate initial approach and provides valuable preliminary insight into the relationships under investigation. However, these findings highlight the importance of future research using a longitudinal design. Longitudinal data would allow for a more accurate understanding of temporal dynamics, provide clearer insights into mediation mechanisms, and strengthen the validity of the conclusions. While this study serves as a strong starting point, further research using longitudinal methods is essential to confirm and extend the preliminary findings.

Another limitation of this study was the demographic composition of the sample, particularly the overrepresentation of female participants. This gender imbalance may limit the generalizability of the findings, as the effects of physical activity, self-control, and emotion regulation on life satisfaction may differ between genders owing to biological, psychological, or social differences. To address this issue, future research should prioritize recruiting a more diverse and gender-balanced sample to ensure that the results are more reflective of the general population. Additionally, exploring potential gender-specific patterns in the relationship between physical activity, self-control, emotion regulation, and life satisfaction could provide deeper insights and help in designing interventions that are sensitive to the unique needs of different demographic groups.

Although self-reporting techniques are valuable, they have inherent limitations. The data collected through these methods may be affected by memory distortions, inclination to provide socially acceptable answers, and other social factors that can compromise the accuracy of self-reported information. Given these constraints, future research should incorporate additional methodologies along with self-reporting. Notably, research systems that leverage wearable devices show particular promise as methodological approaches worthy of further exploration in upcoming studies. Future studies should also investigate whether such a relationship exists in people who exercise for less than a year or who exercise irregularly.

4.2. Strengths and Practical Implications

This study has several strengths that contribute to its originality and value. This study makes a unique contribution by examining, for the first time, the mediating roles of self-control and cognitive reappraisal in the relationship between physical activity and life satisfaction. This approach broadens the scope of understanding beyond the traditional benefits of physical activity by incorporating psychological constructs to elucidate their impact on well-being. In addition, the study highlights the multifaceted benefits of physical activity, demonstrating its role not only in improving physical health but also in enhancing emotional regulation and self-control.

By linking physical activity to broader emotional and decision-making aspects, this study offers important practical applications to improve well-being and life satisfaction through consistent exercise. Health awareness campaigns can highlight the psychological benefits of physical activity, including improved emotional regulation, self-control, and life satisfaction, in addition to physical health benefits. In addition, institutions could promote regular exercise as a means of promoting mental and emotional health, helping individuals to cope with stress, and improving their overall quality of life.

5. Conclusions

The study findings revealed that self–control and emotion regulation play intermediate roles in the relationship between involvement in regular physical activity and satisfaction with life. The level of involvement in physical activity is positively related to life satisfaction through indirect pathways that lead through self–control and cognitive reappraisal. The results indicate that regular physical activity and time spent on training support such forms of regulating one's own emotions and actions, which may consequently lead to greater life satisfaction.