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A peer-reviewed article of this preprint also exists.
This version is not peer-reviewed
Submitted:
21 June 2023
Posted:
21 June 2023
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City, country | Koppen Geiger climate classification; mean annual temperature (°C) | Global horizontal irradiation (kWh/m2/y) (BIPV zone) | Urban heat island intensity (°C) | Effect on building energy consumption | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Manchester, UK | Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) 9.4 | 949 (1) | 3°C | 9.4–12.2% increase in cooling energy needs | [32] |
London, UK | Cfb (Temperate) 11.3 | 1001 (2) | 6°C | Up to 25% increase in cooling and up to 22% decrease in heating energy needs | [33] |
London, UK | Cfb (Temperate) 11.3 | 1001 (2) | Mean daily intensity of 2°C; the mean night-time 3.2°C | Cooling energy consumption is 32–42% higher than cooling energy required for the same building based outside the urban heat island | [34] |
Reading, UK | Cfb (Oceanic) 10.5 | 1077 (2) | 0.73 °C | 0.9–10.8% reduction of heating needs | [35] |
Berlin, DE | Cfb (Oceanic) 10.1 | 1113 (2) | 2.2 °C | 10% reduction of energy consumption | [36] |
Antwerp, BE | Cfb (oceanic) 10.6 | 1107 (2) | 2.4–3.3 °C | 60.8–90% (res); 17.3–30.6% (off) increase in cooling energy needs | [37] |
Munich, DE | Cfb (Marine West Coast Climate) 8.8 | 1194 (2) | 17% increase in heating degree hours for 1982 | 17% lower heating loads in the city centre than rural site | [38] |
Basel, CH | Cfb (Oceanic) 9.6 | 1240 (2) | 1.7 °C (max) | 43% in demand | [39] |
Toulouse, FR | Cfa (Oceanic) 13.8 | 1428 (2) | 5.3 °C (night winter) | A 5% increase in cooling energy demand per 1 K increase in the maximum UHI effect at night. | [27] |
Modena, IT | Cfa (Humid subtropical climate) 13.8 | 1482 (3) | 1.4 °C | 10% increase in cooling and 16% decrease in heating energy needs | [40] |
Rome, IT | Csa (Mediterranean) 15.2 | 1592 (3) | 8 °C | 12–46% increase in cooling energy needs | [41] |
Rome, IT | Csa (Mediterranean) 15.2 | 1592 (3) | 1.4 °C | 30% increase in cooling and 16% decrease in heating energy needs | [42] |
Barcelona, ES | Csa (Mediterranean) 17.7 | 1663 (3) | 4.3 °C | 18–28% increase in cooling energy needs | [43] |
Agrinio, GR | Csa (Mediterranean); 17.2 | 1727 (3) | Mean hourly UHI intensities up to 6 °C; mean intensity of 3.8 °C during nocturnal hours of August | 36.3% (max) higher cooling energy needs in the city centre than the rural areasxc. (CDD: 27 °C - HDD: 18 °C) | [22] |
Athens, GR | Csa (Mediterranean); 18.3 | 1833 (3) | 10 °C | 120% increase in cooling load; 27% decrease in heating needs | [16] |
Western Athens, GR | Csa (Mediterranean); 18.3 | 1833 (3) | 6 °C | 66% (in 1997) and 33% (in 1998) increase of cooling energy needs | [44] |
Delhi, IN | BSh (Mid-Latitude Steppe and Desert) 25.2 | 1921 (4) | 5.9 °C | 6.2% to 15.7% increase in electricity consumption | [45] |
Lusail, QA | BWh (Desert) 27.2 | 2125 (4) | NA | 5.1 to 15.6% increase of cooling energy needs | [46] |
City/country | Variables and simulations | Remarks on UHI effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Europe | Effective and modified albedo, absorptivity, potential of PV deployment | 0.05 effective albedo increase, and solar conversion efficiency increase from 10% to 20% is equivalent Cooling effect to the surroundings is expected at solar conversion efficiency values more than 20%, in Europe |
[127] |
France | Energy plus modelling, Surface Energy Balance |
Reduces the effect on UHI in summer due to radiative and convection fluxes. Reduces the air condition demand by reducing the cooling needs. Slightly increase the heating demand in winter |
[133] |
Toronto | Urban Temperature Comfort Index, UHI mitigation scenarios under trees coverage and RTPV, Simplified analysis, convection effects lacking |
Thermal stress is stronger in places perpendicular to the south – east wind directions. PV roofs with shortwave radiation larger than that of bare surfaces seemed cooler and offered less sensible heat to the air. The PV interventions in air temperature limited about 5m below the roof. Humidity, mean radiant temperature and wind speed are also affect the outdoor thermal comfort |
[128] |
Paris Strasbourg Marseille |
Passive cooling assessment with two key performance indicators Cool roof, natural ventilation and RTPV comparison for UHI mitigation |
RTPV as a shading device depicts a slight increase of the nearby environment heat. Cool Roofs mitigate the rejected heat to the environment up to 50% in all three cities with temperate climates due to increased albedo. Nocturnal night ventilation has no or low impact in the outdoor cooling potential |
[134] |
Roma | Energy plus simulation with Open Studio plug in coupled with Urban Weather Generator, UHI free and UHI influenced comparison are examined. PV model based on Energy plus is used |
Both energy demand and supply optimization are needed to be integrated with urban climatic conditions and radiation UHI increased the building energy demand for air conditioning while the PV electricity supply declined by 0.33% In Net Zero Energy Building Districts (NZEB) the 60% façade PV covering reduced the modules productivity by 11% and more RTPV are needed to fill the gap. |
[132] |
Case studies | Location | Climate classification | Key features | Quantified benefits | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Green roofs and walls | Copenhagen, DK | Cfb (Oceanic) – mild and damp winters and cool summers with moderate precipitation throughout the year | Installation of green roofs on various buildings across the city | - Reduction in surface temperature by up to 32.3°C - Reduction in peak runoff by 50-90% |
[50] |
Urban tree canopy | Amsterdam, NL | Increasing the urban tree canopy across the city | - A decrease in annual heating and cooling energy demand by 5% | [75] | |
Blue-green infrastructure | Rotterdam, NL | Creation of water plazas, green roofs, and rain gardens | - A temperature reduction of up to 1.8°C - Resulted in annual energy savings of approximately 17 GWh - Contributed to a reduction of approximately 30,000 tons of CO2 emissions annually |
[76, 77] | |
Green roofs | London, UK | Installation of green roofs on various buildings across the city | - A temperature reduction of up to 10°C in the immediate vicinity | [78] | |
Cool materials and coatings | Athens, GR | Csa (Mediterranean) - hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters | Using cool materials, such as reflective pavements and coatings | - Increasing the reflective coating area by 40% led to a decrease in air temperature by up to 1.2°C | [18] |
Green roofs and walls | Barcelona, ES | Installation of green roofs on various buildings across the city | - Reduced building energy consumption by up to 25% for cooling and 9% for heating | [79] | |
Green Spaces | Barcelona, ES | Redesigning city blocks to create large pedestrian-only zones with green spaces, trees, and shading structures | - Reduction in ambient temperature by up to 6°C - Energy savings of 9.3% in cooling demand |
[80] | |
ForestMe project – Creation of green infrastructure | Milan, IT | Cfa (Humid Subtropical) - hot, humid summers and mild, wet winters | Creation of green infrastructure including urban forests and green roofs | - Green roofs alone can reduce surface temperatures by up to 20°C and air temperatures by up to 2-4°C in the surrounding area - Green roofs can lead to energy savings of 25-30 kWh/m² per year - ForestMe project is expected to remove approximately 5,500 tons of CO2 from the atmosphere annually |
[81-83] |
Green Space | Warsaw, PL | Dfb (Continental) - cold winters and warm summers | Creation of green spaces across the city | - An increase in green space by 15% resulted in a temperature reduction of 1-2°C | [84] |
Urban tree canopy | Berlin, DE | Increasing of urban tree canopy cover | - An increase of tree cover by 10% led to a temperature reduction of up to 4.7°C | [5] | |
Urban Forests | Oslo, NO | Creation of urban forests through tree planting and green spaces | - Reduction in ambient temperature by up to 2.5°C | [85] | |
Green spaces | Vienna, AT | Retrofitting streets with green infrastructure, including green roofs, trees, and permeable surfaces | - Reduction in surface temperatures by up to 6.4°C | [86] | |
Increasing green spaces (parks, street trees, green roofs) | - Reduction in ambient temperatures by up to 3.2°C - Reduction in the energy demand for cooling buildings by up to 30%, equal to an annual energy savings of approximately 4,000 MWh. - Reduction of approximately 42,000 tons of CO2 emissions per year. |
[87, 88] |
Case studies | Location | Climate classification | PV performance | Quantified benefits | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PV facade | Oslo, NO | Dfb | 700 kWh/kWp |
Economically feasible with 98% self-consumption and 23% self-sufficiency | [123] |
PV facade | Copenhagen, DK | Cfb | 714 kWh/kWp |
50% of the total electricity consumption. | [124,125] |
BIPV ventilated roof | Spreitenbach, CH | Cfb | 733 MWh/year | Twice the amount of energy that it consumes, with a zero CO2 balance |
[110] |
PV Exterior shielding on tilted façade | Vienna. AU | Cfb | 983 kWh / kWp |
23% – 34% of the electricity the PV system produces consumption for the building operation, and 69% to 77% of the PV production is self-consumed. | [114] |
Vertical BIPV overhangs, rooftop | Freiburg, DE | Cfb | Roof: 982 kWh/kWp Façade: 448 kWh/kWp |
The BIPV system on the façade is indispensable to reaching the positive energy target. | [117] |
Roof/Blinds | Petten, NL | Cfb | - | No cooling is needed. BIPV system supplies 90% of the building's electricity needs. |
[115] |
PV façade cladding | Madrid, ES | Csa | 735 kWh/kWp |
100% self-consumption | [119] |
PV Roof/Facade | Lisbon. PT | Csa | 717 kWh/kWp |
Net positive. Improved flexibility due to battery storage. |
[118] |
PV Window/Shades | Bari, IT | Csa | 53.6 MWh/year | 4% saving due to passive benefits. Up to 22% net energy reduction. Notable advantages in terms of visual comfort |
[122] |
PV Window | Agrinio, GR | Csa | 822 kWh/kWp |
Up to 50% energy savings, due to the cooling effect in addition to electricity generation. | [121] |
Rooftop/Canopy/ Double façade BIPV/T | Nicosia, CY | Bsh | 1188 kWh/kWp | >25% of total primary energy consumption. An energetically and financially viable solution for existing buildings. |
[126] |
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