Leisure Attitude and Psychological Well-Being Among Older Adults: An Asymmetrical Dual-Pathway Model for Healthy Aging

1. Introduction

Population aging has become a defining global phenomenon, raising critical concerns about how to maintain psychological well-being and quality of life in later life. While early research on aging primarily emphasized physical health and longevity, contemporary perspectives increasingly highlight the importance of psychological functioning, meaningful engagement, and subjective well-being [1,2,3,4].

Leisure has been widely recognized as a key contributor to successful aging, as it provides opportunities for social interaction, emotional regulation, and personal fulfillment [5,6]. A substantial body of empirical research has demonstrated that leisure engagement is positively associated with life satisfaction, emotional well-being, and overall quality of life [7,8]. More recent studies have further emphasized that the benefits of leisure extend beyond participation itself and are closely linked to psychological and contextual factors that shape individual experiences [9,10].

Despite these advances, the dominant research paradigm has remained largely behavior-oriented, focusing primarily on participation frequency, duration, and activity type. While these factors are important, they provide limited insight into the underlying psychological mechanisms through which leisure influences well-being. Increasingly, scholars have argued that participation alone is insufficient to explain variations in well-being outcomes and that psychological processes play a central role in shaping these [7,11].

In particular, recent research has highlighted the importance of cognitive and motivational mechanisms. Cognitive appraisal theory posits that individuals’ subjective interpretations of experiences are central determinants of emotional and psychological outcomes [12]. In the context of leisure, this perspective suggests that leisure attitude, as a relatively stable cognitive disposition, shapes how individuals perceive and derive meaning from leisure activities. Empirical studies have shown that positive leisure attitudes are associated with greater engagement and improved psychological outcomes [13,14,15].

At the same time, self-determination theory emphasizes that well-being is enhanced when activities satisfy basic psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and relatedness [16,17]. Within the leisure domain, this experiential dimension is reflected in leisure satisfaction, which captures individuals’ subjective evaluation of the quality and outcomes of their leisure experiences. Previous research has consistently demonstrated that leisure satisfaction is positively associated with psychological well-being and life satisfaction [18,19]. Recent studies have further confirmed that need satisfaction plays a critical role in mediating the relationship between leisure and well-being, highlighting the importance of experiential quality [20].

However, despite the theoretical relevance of both cognitive and experiential perspectives, existing studies have largely examined these mechanisms in isolation. Most research has focused either on attitudinal factors or on experiential outcomes, resulting in a fragmented understanding of how these processes jointly influence psychological well-being. Moreover, prior studies have often assumed that experiential factors fully mediate the relationship between leisure-related variables and well-being. Emerging evidence, however, suggests that cognitive factors may exert independent and potentially stronger effects [12,22].

This issue is particularly important in the context of aging. Older adults frequently encounter structural and health-related constraints that limit their participation in leisure activities, making experiential outcomes more dependent on external conditions [23]. In contrast, cognitive resources such as attitudes and perceptions may remain relatively stable and function as compensatory mechanisms that support psychological well-being even under constrained conditions [4].

Accordingly, a more comprehensive understanding of leisure-related well-being requires an integrative approach that simultaneously considers both cognitive and experiential mechanisms. The present study addresses this gap by proposing a dual-pathway model in which leisure attitude influences psychological well-being both directly and indirectly through leisure satisfaction. In addition, this study extends prior research by explicitly comparing the relative strength of these pathways, thereby providing a more nuanced understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying leisure-related well-being among older adults.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

Understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between leisure and well-being requires an integrative theoretical approach. Building on prior research, this study adopts a dual theoretical framework that combines cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory (SDT) to explain how leisure influences psychological well-being among older adults. From the perspective of cognitive appraisal theory, individuals’ subjective interpretations of experiences play a central role in shaping emotional and psychological outcomes [12]. In the context of leisure, this perspective highlights the importance of leisure attitude, which reflects a relatively stable cognitive disposition toward leisure activities. Leisure attitude encompasses individuals’ beliefs, emotions, and behavioral tendencies regarding leisure participation, and it influences how individuals perceive, evaluate, and derive meaning from their leisure experiences. Prior studies have consistently demonstrated that positive leisure attitudes are associated with greater engagement, persistence, and adaptive psychological outcomes [13,14,15]. In addition, individuals with more favorable attitudes toward leisure are more likely to experience positive psychological states, suggesting that leisure attitude may exert a direct influence on psychological well-being. At the same time, cognitive appraisal theory suggests that individuals’ evaluations of leisure may also shape their experiential outcomes. Specifically, individuals with positive leisure attitudes are more likely to perceive their leisure experiences as meaningful and rewarding, thereby enhancing their level of leisure satisfaction. This implies that leisure attitude may influence psychological well-being not only directly but also indirectly through experiential mechanisms. Based on this reasoning, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1. Leisure attitude will have a positive effect on leisure satisfaction. 

H2. Leisure attitude will have a positive effect on psychological well-being. 

Complementing this cognitive perspective, self-determination theory provides a framework for understanding the experiential dimension of leisure. According to SDT, psychological well-being is enhanced when activities satisfy basic psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and relatedness [16,17]. In the leisure context, these need satisfactions are reflected in leisure satisfaction, which captures individuals’ subjective evaluation of the quality and outcomes of their leisure experiences. Empirical research has consistently shown that leisure satisfaction is positively associated with well-being outcomes, including positive affect, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being [18,19]. Unlike leisure attitude, which is relatively stable, leisure satisfaction is more context-dependent and influenced by factors such as program quality, accessibility, and social interaction. Nevertheless, it represents a key experiential mechanism linking leisure engagement to psychological well-being. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3. Leisure satisfaction will have a positive effect on psychological well-being. 

While cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory provide distinct explanations, a more comprehensive understanding of leisure-related well-being requires integrating these perspectives. Prior research has often assumed that experiential factors fully mediate the relationship between leisure-related variables and well-being. However, emerging evidence suggests that cognitive factors may exert independent effects alongside experiential pathways [20,21]. In this regard, leisure satisfaction can be conceptualized as a mediator that links leisure attitude to psychological well-being. Individuals with more positive leisure attitudes are likely to experience higher levels of satisfaction, which in turn enhances their well-being. However, given the theoretical role of cognitive appraisal as a fundamental determinant, it is expected that this mediation will be partial rather than complete. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4. Leisure satisfaction will partially mediate the relationship between leisure attitude and psychological well-being. 

Importantly, this study extends prior research by not only examining mediation but also comparing the relative strength of cognitive and experiential pathways. Cognitive appraisal theory suggests that interpretations of experiences play a more fundamental role than the experiences themselves, whereas self-determination theory emphasizes the importance of experiential quality. Integrating these perspectives leads to the expectation that both pathways will be significant, but not equally influential. Particularly in the context of aging, cognitive resources such as leisure attitude may remain relatively stable even when experiential opportunities are constrained by physical or environmental limitations [4,23]. This suggests that the cognitive pathway may exert a stronger influence on psychological well-being than the experiential pathway. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5. The effect of leisure attitude on psychological well-being will be stronger than that of leisure satisfaction. 

3. Materials and Method

3.1. Participants

This study targeted older adults who were currently participating in leisure programs at senior welfare centers in Seoul, South Korea. Men and women aged 65 years or older who regularly attended programs in the Gangbuk, Gangnam, Gangdong, and Gangseo districts were eligible to participate. A non-probability sampling approach incorporating stratified and quota-based elements was used to recruit participants.

Inclusion criteria were: (a) being aged 65 years or older, (b) being enrolled in at least one program operated by a senior welfare center, and (c) having participated in the program for more than six months. Individuals who were unable to provide informed consent or complete the self-administered questionnaire were excluded. A total of 200 participants (79 men and 121 women) met these criteria and were included in the analyses. Age was verified for eligibility (≥65 years); however, detailed age distribution information was not collected in the questionnaire to minimize respondent burden and is acknowledged as a limitation.

Participants were recruited from multiple districts to ensure variation in community-based settings. Although quota-based elements were applied to balance representation across sites, the sampling strategy was designed to reflect real-world participation contexts in senior welfare center programs. Given the practical constraints of conducting research with older adults in community settings, this approach enabled efficient data collection while maintaining diversity in participant characteristics. While the use of non-probability sampling may limit generalizability, it enhances ecological validity by capturing naturally occurring patterns of participation. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted within the context of similar populations.

3.2. Measurement

3.2.1. Sociodemographic and activity-related variables

Sex, participation duration, and frequency were included as control variables in the SEM model. In addition, participants reported activity-related characteristics including the type of welfare-center program attended, duration of participation (under 6 months; 6–11 months; 12 months or longer), and participation frequency (times per week). In addition, key sociodemographic characteristics were assessed, including income level, education level, and subjective health status. Income level was measured using monthly income categories, education level was based on the highest level of educational attainment, and subjective health status was assessed using a 3-point Likert scale.

3.2.2. Leisure Attitudes

Leisure attitude was measured using the leisure attitude scale originally developed by Beard and Ragheb [22], with specific items adapted from work conducted in Korean adult populations by Lee, Kim, & Kim [23]. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scale assesses cognitive, emotional, volitional, and behavioral components of leisure attitude. Example items include: “Leisure activities increase happiness” (cognitive), “My leisure activities are valuable” (emotional), “I place a high importance on leisure activities in my daily life” (volitional), and “I would like to spend more time on leisure activities” (behavioral).

3.2.3. Leisure satisfaction

Leisure satisfaction was assessed using a scale developed for Korean adults by Ahn [24]. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The scale comprises five sub-factors: self-development, stress relief, health promotion, skill development, and interpersonal relationship enhancement. Representative items include: “My leisure activities help me have new experiences” (self-development), “My leisure activities are effective in relieving daily stress” (stress relief), “My leisure activities give me confidence” (health promotion), “My leisure activities require appropriate skills” (skill development), and “I like my leisure activities because the participants understand each other” (interpersonal relationships).

3.2.4. Psychological well-being

Psychological well-being in this study was operationalized as psychological well-being, based on Ryff’s framework, and is referred to as “psychological well-being” to emphasize the positive, flourishing aspect of well-being in later life. Items were adapted for the Korean context following Yang’s work [25,26,27]. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The measure comprises four sub-factors: self-acceptance, positive relations, environmental mastery, and purpose in life. Example items include: “I have a positive attitude toward myself” (self-acceptance), “I have warm and trusting relationships with others” (positive relations), “I am able to manage my daily responsibilities well” (environmental mastery), and “I have a sense of direction and meaning in life” (purpose in life).

3.3. Control Variables

To enhance the robustness of the model and reduce potential confounding effects, several sociodemographic variables were included as control variables. Specifically, sex, participation frequency, and participation duration were controlled, along with income level, education level, and subjective health status. Income level was included as it may influence access to leisure resources and opportunities, while education level is associated with cognitive orientation and attitudes toward leisure. Subjective health status was considered particularly important in the context of older adults, as it directly affects both the ability to participate in leisure activities and overall psychological well-being. By incorporating these control variables, this study aimed to more accurately estimate the unique effects of leisure attitude and leisure satisfaction on psychological well-being.

3.4. Design and procedure

This study applied a quantitative, cross-sectional research design. Participants were older adults aged 65 years and over who were using senior welfare centers in South Korea. Data were collected from May to August 2025 at senior welfare centers located in the Gangnam, Gangbuk, Gangseo, and Gangdong districts of Seoul. The survey was administered on site to eligible older adults who agreed to participate and completed the self-report questionnaires.

However, the primary aim of this study was to examine the structural relationships among core psychological constructs rather than to estimate fully adjusted causal effects. Therefore, the model prioritizes theoretical clarity while incorporating key control variables. Future research should incorporate a broader set of control variables to enhance the robustness and generalizability of the findings.

3.5. The study ethic

All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hanseo University and were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (HSUIRB-25-03-17). Participants provided written informed consent after being informed about the purpose, procedures, and voluntary nature of the study, including their right to withdraw at any time, and consented to the use of questionnaire data for research purposes only.

3.6. Data Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 21.0 and AMOS 18.0. Descriptive (frequency) analyses were used to summarize participant characteristics and activity-related variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to evaluate construct validity of the leisure attitude, leisure satisfaction, and psychological well-being scales using χ²/df, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA as model-fit indices. Internal consistency reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s α. Pearson’s product–moment correlation coefficients were computed to examine bivariate associations among study variables. Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using AMOS. Model fit was evaluated using χ²/df, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA. To examine the mediating effect of leisure satisfaction, bootstrapping analysis with 5000 resamples was performed. Indirect effects were considered statistically significant when the 95% confidence interval did not include zero. To assess potential common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted. The results indicated that a single factor did not account for the majority of variance, suggesting that common method bias was unlikely to substantially influence the findings.

4. Results

4.1. Characteristics and activities of participants

Table 1 summarizes participant characteristics and program involvement. Of the 200 participants, 39.5% were men and 60.5% were women. Program types were distributed across liberal arts lectures, senior model walking, singing, healing yoga, and vitality exercises. More than half of participants (53.0%) had attended programs for one year or longer, and approximately half (49.5%) participated three times per week or more.

4.2. Validity and reliability of the measurement

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the validity of the measurement models, and reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s α. Model fit was evaluated using standard indices, including χ²/df, CFI, TLI, GFI, and RMSEA [29,30,31]. The results indicated that all measurement models demonstrated acceptable fit (Table 2). Specifically, the leisure attitude model showed good fit (χ²/df = 2.265, CFI = 0.960, TLI = 0.948, RMSEA = 0.062), followed by the leisure satisfaction model (χ²/df = 2.851, CFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.928, RMSEA = 0.075) and the psychological well-being model (χ²/df = 2.154, CFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.971, RMSEA = 0.059). These results confirm that the measurement models demonstrate adequate validity and are appropriate for structural analysis.

All standardized factor loadings exceeded 0.70, indicating strong convergent validity. In addition, the square root of AVE for each construct was greater than the inter-construct correlations, supporting discriminant validity. These results confirm that the measurement model demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity.

Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s α [32]. The overall reliability coefficients were 0.918 for leisure attitude, 0.907 for leisure satisfaction, and 0.950 for psychological well-being (Table 3).

4.3. Correlation analysis between research variables

Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the associations among leisure attitude, leisure satisfaction, and psychological well-being (Table 4). Leisure attitude exhibited a positive correlation with leisure satisfaction (r = 0.541) and psychological well-being (r = 0.478). Leisure satisfaction was also positively correlated with psychological well-being (r = 0.421). All correlations were statistically significant.

4.4. Results of the goodness-of-fit verification of the research model

To assess the causal links between leisure attitudes, leisure satisfaction, and psychological well-being associated with leisure activities among the older adults in this research, analysis of model fit was performed. The overall fit of the hypothesized structural equation model was then evaluated <Table 5>. The model showed acceptable fit to the data, with CFI and TLI values exceeding 0.90 and an RMSEA value below 0.08. The fit indices for the research model were CFI 0.955, TLI 0.930, and RMSEA 0.072, demonstrating that all fit criteria were met, thus supporting further hypothesis testing <Table 5>.

4.5. Results of the study model

After verifying the model’s goodness of fit, the findings regarding the study’s hypotheses are presented as follows <Table 6>. First, the leisure attitude toward participating in leisure activities among the older adults exerted a significant positive influence on leisure satisfaction (β=0.543, t=10.256, p<0.001). Second, the leisure attitude of the older adults toward engagement in leisure activities was found to have a positive impact on psychological well-being (β=0.368, t=6.840, p<0.01). Third, leisure satisfaction achieved through participation in leisure activities among the older adults positively influenced psychological well-being (β=0.150, t=3.785, p<0.05). Taken together, these findings suggest that older adults with more positive attitudes toward leisure tend to report higher satisfaction with their leisure activities and greater psychological well-being, and that leisure satisfaction plays an important role in linking leisure attitudes to psychological well-being. The results indicate that leisure attitude exerts a stronger direct effect on psychological well-being (β = 0.368) than leisure satisfaction (β = 0.150), supporting the proposed asymmetry between cognitive and experiential pathways.

To further examine the mediating role of leisure satisfaction, bootstrapping analysis was conducted using 5000 resamples. The results indicated that the indirect effect of leisure attitude on psychological well-being via leisure satisfaction was statistically significant (indirect effect = 0.081, 95% CI [0.021, 0.145]). Because the confidence interval did not include zero, the mediating effect of leisure satisfaction was supported. These findings confirm that leisure satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between leisure attitude and psychological well-being. Although the effect size of leisure satisfaction on psychological well-being was relatively modest, it remained statistically significant, suggesting that experiential factors contribute to well-being alongside cognitive factors. This finding highlights the multifaceted nature of psychological well-being.

5. Discussion

This study contributes to the literature on leisure and psychological well-being by demonstrating that both cognitive and experiential mechanisms play significant roles in shaping well-being among older adults, while importantly revealing that these pathways are not equally influential. By integrating cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory, the present study provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the psychological processes underlying leisure-related well-being.

First, the significant effect of leisure attitude on leisure satisfaction is consistent with prior research suggesting that individuals’ cognitive orientations toward leisure influence how they evaluate their experiences. Previous studies have shown that positive leisure attitudes are associated with higher levels of engagement and more meaningful leisure experiences [13,14]. Similarly, Lee and Kwon reported that individuals with favorable leisure attitudes tend to experience higher satisfaction and better social adjustment [15]. The present findings extend this line of research by empirically confirming that leisure attitude not only influences participation-related outcomes but also plays a foundational role in shaping experiential evaluations such as satisfaction. In addition, Iso-Ahola [33] emphasized that cognitive interpretations of leisure experiences play a central role in determining their perceived quality, while Ragheb and Griffith [34] demonstrated that positive leisure attitudes are closely linked to higher levels of leisure satisfaction. These findings further support the present results by reinforcing the importance of cognitive appraisal in shaping experiential outcomes.

Second, leisure attitude exerted a direct and substantial effect on psychological well-being, even after accounting for leisure satisfaction and control variables. This finding aligns with studies emphasizing the role of cognitive appraisal in determining emotional and psychological outcomes [12]. More specifically, prior research has shown that leisure attitude is positively associated with psychological well-being, independent of behavioral engagement [21]. In addition, meta-analytic evidence suggests that subjective evaluations and cognitive interpretations play a crucial role in shaping well-being outcomes. The present study extends these findings by demonstrating that leisure attitude functions not merely as an antecedent to satisfaction but as an independent psychological resource that directly contributes to well-being. This interpretation is further supported by Diener et al. [35], who argued that subjective well-being is fundamentally shaped by cognitive evaluations, and by Lent [36], who highlighted the central role of cognitive processes in psychological functioning and adjustment. Together, these perspectives strengthen the argument that cognitive mechanisms play a primary role in determining well-being in later life.

Third, the positive relationship between leisure satisfaction and psychological well-being is consistent with a substantial body of prior research. Consistent with prior research, leisure satisfaction has been identified as a significant contributor to subjective well-being, life satisfaction, and positive affect [6,8]. In particular, previous studies have emphasized that the quality of leisure experiences plays a key role in enhancing well-being, while need satisfaction has been shown to mediate the relationship between leisure and well-being [10,18]. However, the relatively smaller effect size observed in the present study suggests that experiential mechanisms alone may not fully explain variations in well-being among older adults. Rather, these findings indicate that leisure satisfaction should be understood as a complementary mechanism that operates alongside cognitive processes. From a broader perspective, Seligman [37] highlighted that positive experiential states contribute to flourishing and well-being, while Dolan et al. [38] identified experiential factors as key determinants of happiness. These findings support the role of leisure satisfaction but also reinforce the need to consider its relative influence alongside cognitive mechanisms.

Fourth, the mediation analysis revealed that leisure satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between leisure attitude and psychological well-being. This finding is consistent with previous studies that have identified leisure satisfaction as an important mediating mechanism [33.34]. However, unlike prior research that has often assumed full mediation, the present study demonstrates a partial mediation structure. This result provides a more nuanced understanding of the relationship by showing that cognitive and experiential mechanisms operate simultaneously rather than sequentially. This interpretation is consistent with the mediation framework proposed by Baron and Kenny [39], which acknowledges the coexistence of direct and indirect effects, as well as with Hayes [40], who emphasized that partial mediation is common in complex psychological models.

Most importantly, this study makes a novel theoretical contribution by explicitly comparing the relative strength of cognitive and experiential pathways and demonstrating their asymmetrical structure. While previous studies have examined either attitudinal or experiential factors in isolation, few have directly compared their relative influence within a unified model. The finding that the cognitive pathway exerts a stronger effect than the experiential pathway provides empirical support for an asymmetrical dual-pathway framework. This comparison of relative effects provides empirical support for the asymmetrical structure of the dual-pathway model, suggesting that cognitive appraisal may serve as a more fundamental determinant of psychological well-being than experiential evaluation. Taken together, these findings suggest a shift from experience-centered explanations toward cognition-centered frameworks in understanding leisure-related well-being.

This finding is particularly meaningful in the context of aging. Previous research has shown that older adults often face structural constraints, including declining health and limited mobility, which can restrict leisure participation [23]. At the same time, studies on successful aging have emphasized the importance of psychological adaptation and internal resources in maintaining well-being [1,2]. In line with these perspectives, the present findings suggest that cognitive resources such as leisure attitude may function as compensatory mechanisms that sustain well-being even when experiential opportunities are constrained. This interpretation is further supported by socioemotional selectivity theory, which suggests that older adults prioritize emotionally meaningful and cognitively relevant experiences, and by Charles and Carstensen, who demonstrated that aging is associated with enhanced emotion regulation [41,42].

From a practical perspective, these findings have important implications for the design of interventions aimed at promoting well-being among older adults. While previous approaches have primarily focused on increasing participation or improving program quality, the present study suggests that greater emphasis should be placed on enhancing individuals’ cognitive orientations toward leisure. Programs that foster positive beliefs, values, and meanings associated with leisure may strengthen the cognitive foundation of well-being. At the same time, given that experiential quality remains significant, interventions should adopt an integrated approach that simultaneously addresses both cognitive and experiential dimensions. These implications are consistent with the World Health Organization [43], which emphasizes the importance of maintaining psychological well-being in healthy aging, and with Nimrod [44], who highlighted the effectiveness of leisure-based interventions in later life.

6. Conclusion

This study provides important insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying leisure-related well-being among older adults by integrating cognitive and experiential perspectives within a unified framework. The findings demonstrate that leisure attitude influences psychological well-being both directly and indirectly through leisure satisfaction, confirming a dual-pathway mechanism. More importantly, the results reveal that these pathways are asymmetrical, with the cognitive pathway exerting a stronger influence than the experiential pathway. This finding challenges the prevailing assumption that enhancing the quality of leisure experiences alone is sufficient to improve well-being and instead highlights the more fundamental role of cognitive appraisal. Theoretically, this study advances the literature by moving beyond traditional mediation models and providing empirical evidence for an asymmetrical dual-pathway framework. Practically, the findings suggest that interventions aimed at promoting well-being in later life should not only focus on increasing participation or improving program quality but also emphasize fostering positive cognitive orientations toward leisure. Overall, this study shifts the focus of leisure research from what older adults do to how they interpret and evaluate their leisure experiences, offering a more nuanced understanding of healthy aging and a clearer direction for future research and practice.

7. Strengths and limitations

This study has several strengths. It integrates cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory to explain the psychological mechanisms linking leisure and well-being and employs validated measures and structural equation modeling to examine both direct and indirect relationships. In addition, the focus on older adults in community-based leisure programs provides practical relevance for health promotion in aging societies. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference, and reverse or bidirectional relationships cannot be ruled out. Future research should employ longitudinal or experimental designs to clarify causal pathways. Second, the sample was drawn from older adults participating in senior welfare center programs, which may limit generalizability due to potential selection bias toward more active and healthier individuals. Third, the use of self-report data collected at a single time point raises the possibility of common method bias. Although this study controlled for key sociodemographic and health-related variables, other factors such as social support, environmental conditions, and more detailed health measures were not incorporated into the model. These variables may also influence psychological well-being and should be considered in future research to enhance model comprehensiveness. Finally, some observed effects—particularly the relationship between leisure satisfaction and psychological well-being—were relatively modest, suggesting that additional psychological or contextual factors should be explored in future studies.