A Comprehensive Review of Phytochemicals, Synthetic Strategies, and Bioactivities of Piper nigrum (Black Pepper)

Due to its rich array of bioactive compounds, black pepper (Piper nigrum) is not only a spice in kitchens worldwide, but a plant of significant medicinal interest as well. Among these, piperine has wide-ranging biological effects and has become a focal point in scientific research. Besides piperine, black pepper also contains numerous other phytochemicals, like essential oils, flavonoids, terpenes, and lignans-all of which have shown pharmacological activities. This review offers an in-depth look at the various phytochemicals found in black pepper, detailing both traditional and modern techniques used for their extraction and purification. Particular attention is given to the total synthesis and chemical modifications of piperine and related compounds, outlining major developments and methodologies in this area. The review also briefly touches on the therapeutic applications validated so far. Overall, this work is intended to be a valuable resource for researchers interested in the chemical, synthetic, and medicinal potential of Piper nigrum.