Submitted:
07 September 2025
Posted:
08 September 2025
You are already at the latest version
Abstract
Background: Values embody the idealized self of a society, forming the basis of culture and tradition. They operate as reference points for distinguishing truth from falsehood, justice from injustice, and virtue from vice. Yet, contemporary education systems face growing difficulties in instilling value-based moral consciousness among youth. This decline is increasingly associated with ideological fragmentation, moral vacuums, and the cultural influence of global commercialism [1].Objective: This study aims to identify the socio-psychological determinants shaping value-oriented development among students in schools and universities. It emphasizes the interplay between moral education, personal integrity, and social integration, while examining behavioral patterns that obstruct this process.Methods: A meta-analytical and interdisciplinary approach was adopted, integrating insights from philosophy, sociology, psychology, anthropology, and social psychology. Theoretical frameworks were critically reviewed alongside empirical findings from international studies on value formation, moral education, and youth behavioral trends [2,3].Results: The findings demonstrate that value formation is strongly influenced by collective emotional identification, cultural narratives, and institutional structures. Key challenges include insufficient curricular integration of moral education, the erosion of traditional ethical frameworks, and increased exposure of youth to egocentrism, violence, substance abuse, and digital misinformation. These factors diminish moral resilience and civic responsibility. Conversely, structured educational interventions fostering ethical awareness were shown to strengthen both personal development and societal well-being [4].Conclusion: Youth moral development is a dynamic process shaped by the interaction between individual dispositions, education systems, and societal structures. Effective value formation requires interdisciplinary collaboration, the integration of ethical principles into academic settings, and targeted strategies to mitigate negative behavioral influences. Reinforcing value-oriented development is crucial for building responsible citizenship and promoting sustainable social cohesion.
Keywords:
Value formation
; moral development
; youth behavior
; educational environment
; socio-psychological determinants
; ethical consciousness
1. Introduction
The notion of value has been widely examined across multiple academic disciplines, including philosophy, sociology, psychology, anthropology, and theology. These inquiries, directly or indirectly, aim to define the nature, scope, and function of values in shaping individual and collective behavior. In general, values may be understood as abstract norms arising from the collective emotional attachment of social groups toward specific goals, thereby establishing standards that regulate social life [5].
From a philosophical perspective, values are intrinsically linked to goodness and to the inherent worth of objects or actions [6]. They are relational, emerging from the dynamic interaction between subject and object. As such, values cannot be reduced to abstract knowledge but represent existential constructs that embody permanence, belief, and choice [7]. They underpin cultural traditions and serve as evaluative criteria for truth, justice, and moral integrity [8].
2. Value, Virtue, and Morality
2.1. Interdependence of Concepts
The discourse on values naturally extends to virtue and morality. Virtue may be defined as the disposition and capacity of the individual to embody and act in accordance with values [9]. Morality, by contrast, refers to patterns of behavior shaped by dispositions, while ethics constitutes the systematic study of moral principles and their justification [10].
2.2. Historical Perspectives
Classical thinkers such as Socrates linked morality directly to knowledge, arguing that virtue stems from correct perception [11]. In medieval philosophy, values were subordinated to religious truth, whereas modern empiricism shifted emphasis toward knowledge as an autonomous force [12]. Contemporary approaches integrate value, virtue, morality, and knowledge into a unified framework, stressing their role in sustaining both individual meaning and social order [13].
3. The Role of University Youth
University students occupy a critical position in the intellectual strata of society, shaping both the present and the future through their values and ethical orientations [14]. As future professionals and civic leaders, their value systems influence not only their communities but also broader global contexts. The formation of student values, however, is deeply influenced by socio-demographic characteristics, family background, cultural narratives, and institutional practices [15].
Structured moral education within universities thus plays a decisive role in reinforcing positive ethical orientations while mitigating maladaptive tendencies such as cynicism, consumerism, and apathy [16].
4. Conceptual Framework
4.1. Determinants of Value Formation
The transmission of values across generations is shaped by family background, cultural traditions, media influence, and educational systems [17]. Empirical research suggests that parental education, especially paternal influence, strongly correlates with political and economic values among youth, though its effect on religious values is less pronounced [18].
4.2. Media and Behavioral Influences
Mass media, particularly television and digital platforms, exert measurable effects on value orientations. These effects are mediated by age, gender, and socio-economic background, contributing to both the reinforcement and erosion of ethical consciousness [19]. The rise of social media has amplified this dynamic, exposing youth to competing moral frameworks and sometimes contradictory value systems [20].
5. Inglehart’s Theory and Value Orientations
The socio-cultural environment and individual dispositions constitute fundamental determinants of value formation. Within Islamic intellectual traditions, economic or material superiority is not considered the ultimate criterion of value; rather, it is regarded as a means toward broader moral and spiritual objectives [22]. Nevertheless, material conditions remain pivotal in shaping opportunities for moral development, making it essential to evaluate both environmental and individual influences.
Inglehart’s theory provides a valuable framework for analyzing the dynamic interplay between materialist and post-materialist values. His model suggests that while economic security encourages the pursuit of post-material goals—such as self-expression and quality of life—economic instability often prioritizes survival values, including financial stability and physical security [23]. For adolescents, this duality implies that moral development cannot be assessed in isolation from material circumstances. The present study employs Inglehart’s conceptual framework to explore youth development holistically, encompassing both material and moral dimensions [24].
6. Moral Judgment, Empathy, and Social Development
The cultivation of moral judgment and empathy is essential for democratic, tolerant, and non-violent societies. Individuals with highly developed capacities in these domains are more likely to engage in conflict resolution through dialogue and consensus rather than coercion or violence [25]. Lind [26] highlights that moral judgment, when nurtured in educational settings, strengthens democratic competence and reduces tendencies toward authoritarianism.
Moral judgment and empathy also function as crucial indicators of psychological well-being. Classic psychoanalytic and humanistic traditions, including Adler [27], Fromm [28], and Horney [29], emphasized that empathy and moral sensitivity are indispensable components of healthy personality development. Later empirical studies confirmed these insights, establishing empathy as a central mechanism for prosocial behavior and cooperative engagement [30].
Hogan and Emler [31] argued that what most distinguishes homo sapiens from other higher species is not merely the capacity for tool use but the ability to construct cooperative social systems. Philosophers and sociologists, from Rousseau [32] to Durkheim [33] and Mead [34], underscored moral order as the nucleus of human society. Evolutionary and neuroscientific perspectives also affirm that moral capacity is an adaptive response, essential for communal survival (Changeux, 2002 [35]). Thus, moral judgment and empathy represent evolutionary, psychological, and social imperatives.
7. Historical Perspectives on Morality and Education
Throughout intellectual history, morality has been inseparable from debates on happiness, justice, and human flourishing. Philosophers and educators consistently affirmed that moral development is indispensable for societal continuity [36].
In the early twentieth century, empirical approaches often adopted a value-centered perspective. Hartshorne and May’s (1930) pioneering study demonstrated that children’s verbal endorsement of moral norms did not consistently predict moral behavior, as many participants engaged in cheating under conditions of anonymity [37]. This suggested that moral behavior was situationally contingent and relative to peer norms.
Kohlberg (1968/1995) challenged these findings, arguing that they reflected methodological limitations rather than deficiencies in moral development theory [38]. His research revealed that moral behavior is linked to developmental stages of reasoning: individuals operating at conventional stages were more prone to dishonest acts, while those at principled levels displayed greater consistency in adhering to universal moral principles.
8. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg conceptualized morality as the capacity to judge and act according to universal principles of justice. This required aligning personal decision-making with self-imposed universal laws, thereby transcending situational pressures [39]. Morality, in this sense, represents a process of reconstruction within the individual’s engagement with society, manifesting in solidarity, altruism, and civic responsibility [40].
Drawing upon Piaget’s developmental psychology, Kohlberg established a stage-based model of moral reasoning that has since become foundational in moral psychology and pedagogy [41,42]. This paradigm emphasized the primacy of moral judgment in moral development, setting a benchmark for subsequent empirical and theoretical inquiries [43].
9. Kohlberg’s Hierarchical Model of Moral Development
9.1. The Invariance of Developmental Stages
Kohlberg proposed a hierarchical model comprising three levels—pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional—each containing two substages, resulting in six invariant stages of moral reasoning [44]. Development is sequential: new stages emerge as more adequate resolutions to moral dilemmas, replacing earlier forms. Stages cannot be skipped, nor do individuals regress to prior levels, though stabilization varies, and only a minority reach post-conventional reasoning [45].
Two principal factors drive moral development:
- Cognitive growth, underpinning reasoning and behavior.
- Social interaction, particularly role-taking and perspective-sharing [46].
Lind [47] further emphasized the role of perspective-taking and moral dilemma discussions in cultivating judgment, as illustrated in his Konstanz Method of Dilemma Discussion (KMDD).
9.2. Cognition, Emotion, and Morality
Although Kohlberg’s model foregrounds cognition, it recognizes the centrality of emotions. Empathy, indignation at injustice, and altruistic motivation are essential for moral conduct but remain integrated within rational processes of moral reasoning [48].
9.3. Cross-Cultural Perspectives
Cross-cultural research broadly validates the universality of Kohlberg’s sequence, with most societies showing a developmental shift during adolescence from instrumental-relativist orientations (Stage 2) to conformity and interpersonal expectations (Stage 3) [49]. However, some scholars argue that the post-conventional stage reflects meta-cognitive reflection rather than a genuine developmental stage, requiring complex societal conditions for its full realization [50].
9.4. The Dual-Aspect Model of Lind
Expanding Kohlberg’s cognitive approach, Lind [51] advanced the dual-aspect model of moral judgment. He defined moral competence as the ability to consciously shape one’s life through reflection, deliberation, and responsibility, distinguishing responsible altruistic action from amoral impulses. This dual-aspect perspective underscores the inseparability of individual autonomy and collective responsibility.
9.5. Educational Applications and Broader Impact
Kohlberg’s framework has profoundly influenced educational theory and practice. His Just Community School project demonstrated how participatory democracy and shared responsibility can foster moral development [52]. Subsequent empirical research confirmed that systematic engagement with moral dilemmas promotes higher stages of reasoning [53]. Beyond psychology and pedagogy, Kohlberg’s theory has shaped discourses in philosophy, sociology, law, and theology, reinforcing its interdisciplinary significance [54].
10. Educational Implications for Value Formation
10.1. Curriculum Integration: Ethico-Civic Literacy and Developmental Fit
Embedding explicit ethics/civics strands across disciplines—paired with structured dilemma discussions, service learning, and reflection—supports movement from conventional to post-conventional reasoning when aligned with students’ developmental readiness [98,99,100,101]. Programs integrating social–emotional learning (SEL) with moral reasoning show small-to-moderate effects on prosocial behavior and conduct problems, especially when implemented schoolwide and with fidelity [55].
10.2. School Climate, Participatory Governance, and Just Community Models
Whole-school approaches emphasizing participatory rule-making, fairness, and voice (e.g., Just Community schools) are associated with gains in moral judgment, responsibility, and civic engagement [103,104,105]. Restorative practices that foreground repair, dialogue, and community standards can reduce suspensions and improve belonging, reinforcing value-congruent norms [56].
10.3. Teacher Education and Professional Learning
Teacher competence in facilitating moral discourse (role-taking prompts, perspective coordination, and emotion regulation) predicts classroom-level gains in moral reasoning and empathy [58,59,60]. Professional development that couples KMDD-style facilitation with formative assessment (e.g., DIT-2 or MJT feedback) enhances instructional quality and student outcomes [61,62].
10.4. Family–School–Community Partnerships
Consistent value messaging across microsystems (family, school, community) strengthens internalization, particularly when paired with opportunities for autonomy, responsibility, and civic action [63,64,65]. Service-learning that ties community needs to course objectives and guided reflection yields durable prosocial effects [110].
10.5. Digital Ecologies: Media, Misinformation, and Cyber-Civics
Media literacy and digital citizenship curricula—targeting perspective-taking online, emotion regulation, and verification skills—mitigate impulsive moral transgressions (e.g., cyberbullying) and reduce susceptibility to misinformation [66,67,68,69]. Interventions are most effective when they combine norms education, empathy-building, and practical strategies (reporting, bystander action) [70].
11. Methods: Meta-Analytic Protocol
11.1. Eligibility Criteria (PICOS)
Population: Adolescents and young adults (≈12–25 years) in school or university contexts.
Interventions/Exposures: Moral education programs (e.g., KMDD, Just Community, SEL, character education), empathy training, civics curricula, or measured exposures (school climate, media use).
Comparators: Business-as-usual, waitlist, alternative programs, or cross-sectional contrasts by exposure.
Outcomes: Moral judgment (e.g., DIT/DIT-2, MJT), empathy (e.g., IRI), prosocial behavior, misconduct, civic participation.
Study Designs: RCTs, quasi-experimental, longitudinal, and cross-sectional studies with sufficient data to compute effect sizes [71].
11.2. Information Sources and Search Strategy
Databases: Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC, PsycINFO, ProQuest Dissertations, and regional indices. Time frame: 1970–2025. Search strings will combine constructs for moral judgment/empathy with education/school terms and program labels. Reference lists and forward/backward citation tracking will supplement searches [72,73,74].
11.3. Study Selection and Screening
Two independent reviewers will screen titles/abstracts and full texts, resolving disagreements by consensus. Inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s κ) will be reported. A PRISMA 2020 flow diagram will document selection [75].
11.4. Data Extraction and Coding
We will code sample characteristics (age, country/region, SES), design features, intervention attributes (duration, dosage, facilitator training), outcome measures, and statistical details for effect-size computation. Cultural value orientation (e.g., materialist/post-materialist indices; Schwartz value profiles) will be coded at study- or country-level where available [76,77,78].
11.5. Effect Size Metrics and Models
For continuous outcomes, Hedges’ g with small-sample correction will be used; for dichotomous outcomes, log ORs will be converted to g where necessary. Random-effects models (REML) will estimate pooled effects; multilevel structures will account for dependency due to multiple outcomes/times within studies [79,80,81]. Robust variance estimation (RVE) will be used as sensitivity analysis when covariance structures are partially known [82].
11.6. Heterogeneity and Moderator Analyses
Between-study heterogeneity will be summarized via τ² and I²; prediction intervals will be reported. Meta-regression will examine moderators: educational level, program type (KMDD/Just Community/SEL/character education), duration, facilitator preparation, assessment timing (post, follow-up), measurement type (DIT/MJT/IRI), and cultural context (materialist vs. post-materialist) [83,84].
11.7. Risk of Bias and Publication Bias
11.8. Sensitivity and Influence Analyses
Leave-one-out diagnostics, influence metrics (DFBETAS, Cook’s distance), and alternative estimators (DerSimonian–Laird with Knapp–Hartung adjustments) will test stability of pooled effects. Outcome-level sensitivity will assess the impact of measure choice (e.g., DIT vs. MJT vs. behavioral indicators) [87,88,89,90].
11.9. Certainty of Evidence and Transparency
12. Synthesis Framework and Anticipated Patterns (Literature-Guided)
While quantitative results depend on included studies, prior syntheses suggest:
13. Policy and Practice Recommendations (Actionable Summary)
- Strengthen participatory climate and restorative practices to align governance with value education and reduce punitive cycles [106].
13. Mechanisms of Moral Transmission
Moral development unfolds through the internalization of shared social experience, mediated by intergenerational exchange in families, schools, and communities. Transmission operates via language and discourse, routinized practices, and institutional interaction orders that align personal conduct with social norms [17,96,132]. In this view, moral education is an intentional, systemic process that simultaneously shapes cognition, emotion, and behavior.
13.1. Core Components of Moral Education
(1) Cultivation of moral consciousness—clarifying values, principles, and standards through explicit instruction and guided discourse [52,101].
(2) Development of ethical sensibilities—strengthening empathic appraisal, moral emotions, and perspective-taking to sensitize students to harm, fairness, and care [63,65,82].
14. Collective and Individual Dimensions of Moral Formation
Moral education must operate concurrently at collective (classroom/peer culture) and individual (student-specific) levels. Group structures enable norm internalization and cooperative practice, whereas individualized supports address heterogeneous development in character, awareness, and need [101,109,134]. Crucially, personalization should extend to all learners, not only those with disciplinary challenges, to promote equitable developmental opportunities (Engelberg et al., 1992 [135]).
15. Pedagogical Strategies and Practical Approaches
16. University Youth and the Moral Imperative in Higher Education
16.1. University Students as Ethical Agents of Social Change
As a pivotal segment of the intellectual stratum, university students mediate the present and future ethical trajectory of society. Their value internalization shapes civic consciousness, public reason, and ideological orientations; cultivating universally recognized human values in higher education is therefore both an expectation and a necessity [97,101,109].
16.2. Assessing Value Orientations in Higher Education
Rigorous assessment of students’ value orientations should consider socio-demographic and educational covariates (gender, age, discipline, family background) and employ validated frameworks (e.g., Schwartz’s basic values; Inglehart’s materialist/post-materialist indices) [23,24,119]. The present program examines heterogeneity in value perceptions across these strata (Najafov, 2025b [137]).
17. Dynamics of Moral Formation and the Educational Process
17.1. Interplay of Educational, Familial, and Social Environments
Moral characteristics develop through sustained interaction among school, family, and peer/community contexts. Contemporary moral education must both cultivate positive traits and correct misconceptions and ethically undesirable behaviors through aligned messaging and practice opportunities [96,101,138]. Concepts attain durable force when internalized as convictions (not merely rules), integrating judgment, emotion, and conduct into a coherent moral identity [80,82].
17.2. Risks of Moral Deficiency and the Need for Rehabilitation
Deficits in family functioning, weak pedagogical oversight, negative peer ecologies, or adverse socio-cultural conditions can precipitate antisocial trajectories. In such cases, moral rehabilitation—structured, developmentally sensitive interventions—becomes a psychological and pedagogical necessity [89,106,131,139].
17.3. Virtues as Core Elements of University Education
Higher education should model ethical relations and intentionally cultivate civic responsibility, reciprocity/empathy, industriousness, idealism, collectivism, and constructive patriotism. These virtues underwrite accountable participation in public life and enable self-evaluation “from the standpoint of the other” [21,101,138].
18. The Role of Moral Ideals in Adolescent and Young Adult Development
18.1. Ideals as Motivational Forces
Adolescents’ heightened receptivity to moral ideals—often inspired by exemplars and civic experiences—provides motivational scaffolding for aspiration, self-improvement, and goal pursuit [80,139]. Ideals organize ethical reasoning and energize commitment to long-term projects of character and citizenship [101].
18.2. Emotional and Identity Dimensions of Ideals
Pursuit of ideals is entwined with emotions (self-respect, dignity, pride) and identity consolidation. Alignment between behavior and internalized ideals stabilizes self-esteem and supports moral autonomy, providing a durable compass for decision-making (Haley et al., 1987 [140]; Hasin et al., 1988 [141]).
19. Moral and Spiritual Education as a Strategic Social Resource
19.1. Broader Societal Implications
Moral–spiritual education is a strategic resource that shapes social conduct, environmental responsibility, and interhuman relations—linking personal development to social sustainability [21,97,142]. Framed at system level, it contributes to cohesion, trust, and democratic resilience [103,104,105,131].
19.2. Education as a Core Dimension of Human Development
Within higher education, moral–spiritual learning should be central, not ancillary: a scaffold for ethically guided participation in civic, cultural, and professional life [99,100,101,138]. Systematic structuring (curriculum, climate, practice, assessment) increases durability and transfer of learning [52,102,110].
20. Strategies for Developing Moral and Ethical Potential
20.1. Multidimensional Approaches
Effective development integrates rational, emotional, and cultural-creative pathways:
21. Humanities as a Vehicle for Moral and Spiritual Development
Disciplines within the humanities—including literature, philosophy, history, sociology, and cultural studies—possess profound axiological potential, shaping civic identity, fostering tolerance, and strengthening democratic values [145]. They act as critical instruments of moral transmission by embedding ethical narratives, historical consciousness, and cultural traditions into the learning process.
21.1. Indicators for Assessing the Effectiveness of Moral and Spiritual Education
A systematic framework for evaluating moral and spiritual education should incorporate the following indicators [46]:
Table 11.
Indicators of moral and spiritual education effectiveness.
| No. | Indicator |
|---|---|
| 1 | Development of a scientific worldview within ethical frameworks |
| 2 | Emergence of inner freedom and unity with society and nature |
| 3 | Positive self-affirmation and stable identity |
| 4 | Leadership in educational or civic activities |
| 5 | Accurate self-assessment of values and behaviors |
| 6 | Formation of behavioral patterns grounded in justice, empathy, responsibility |
These indicators provide an operational lens for assessing both cognitive acquisition of values and behavioral enactment in academic and civic contexts.
22. Psychosocial Conditions of Moral Development
22.1. Pedagogical Psychology and Moral Formation
Pedagogical psychology emphasizes the psychosocial determinants of moral development, focusing on how learning environments, teacher–student relationships, and institutional practices shape value internalization [47]. Educational psychology further highlights how students acquire ethical reasoning through classroom interactions, peer engagement, and mentorship [48].
22.2. Addressing Vulnerabilities and Special Needs
Inclusive moral education requires targeted interventions for vulnerable groups, including students with developmental disabilities or adverse family contexts [149]. Strategies include:
- Holistic interventions addressing cognitive, behavioral, and emotional barriers;
- Structured learning environments supporting moral self-regulation;
- Family counseling programs reinforcing home–school alignment.
These measures ensure equitable access to moral development opportunities, preventing exclusion and fostering social integration [50].
23. Dimensions of Value Education: A Multidimensional Framework
Value education is inherently multidimensional, spanning cultural, social, religious, moral, and scientific domains, each essential for holistic moral formation [51].
23.1. Cultural Values
Table 12.
Educational objectives of cultural values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Cultivate aesthetic and artistic talents |
| 2 | Recognize beauty in creation as a sign of sacredness |
| 3 | Promote appreciation of Islamic and world art traditions |
| 4 | Encourage preservation of cultural heritage and art history |
| 5 | Strengthen Persian language and literature as cultural unity symbols |
| 6 | Introduce ideals of Islamic cultural traditions |
| 7 | Provide strategies to prevent cultural and moral decline |
| 8 | Engage students with Islamic, Iranian, and world civilizations |
23.2. Social Values
Table 13.
Educational objectives of social values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Reinforce family cohesion and Islamic moral principles |
| 2 | Promote justice, peace, and tolerance |
| 3 | Strengthen national unity and civic responsibility |
| 4 | Emphasize respect for laws and human rights |
| 5 | Develop interpersonal and communication skills |
| 6 | Encourage participation in civic, cultural, and religious life |
| 7 | Foster resilience in facing social and ethical challenges |
23.3. Religious Values
Table 14.
Educational objectives of religious values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Build knowledge of Islamic beliefs and faith |
| 2 | Recognize God as the ultimate source of guidance |
| 3 | Follow the Prophet and Imams as ethical exemplars |
| 4 | Understand accountability on the Day of Judgment |
| 5 | Respect parents, leaders, and authority figures |
| 6 | Engage in Qur’an recitation and interpretation |
| 7 | Practice obligatory and voluntary worship |
| 8 | Adhere to Islamic rulings on gender, halal/haram, and conduct |
| 9 | Participate in mosque and community activities |
23.4. Moral Values
Table 15.
Educational objectives of moral values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Cultivate honesty, sincerity, and reliability |
| 2 | Promote kindness, humility, and patience |
| 3 | Develop responsibility for personal and social duties |
| 4 | Foster respect for elders, peers, and parents |
| 5 | Encourage diligence, order, and self-discipline |
| 6 | Support empathy, cooperation, and peer solidarity |
| 7 | Strengthen resilience, optimism, and ethical reflection |
23.5. Scientific and Educational Values
Table 16.
Educational objectives of scientific and educational values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Cultivate intellectual curiosity and analytical skills |
| 2 | Strengthen literacy and effective communication |
| 3 | Appreciate practical applications of knowledge |
| 4 | Develop civic and social competencies |
| 5 | Build meta-cognitive skills (learning how to learn) |
| 6 | Encourage independent and critical reading |
24. Categorization of Educational Values: Functional Domains
Educational values extend beyond traditional categories, encompassing artistic, social, biological, political, and economic domains [12].
24.1. Artistic and Aesthetic Values
Table 17.
Educational objectives of artistic values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Appreciate beauty in art and nature |
| 2 | Express creativity through artistic media |
| 3 | Understand cultural heritage and global masterpieces |
| 4 | Promote literary appreciation, poetry, and storytelling |
24.2. Social Values
Table 18.
Educational objectives of social values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Strengthen family and community responsibility |
| 2 | Promote mutual support, gratitude, and service |
| 3 | Encourage teamwork, dialogue, and cooperation |
| 4 | Respect teachers, rules, and civic obligations |
24.3. Biological and Health Values
Table 19.
Educational objectives of health values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Maintain personal hygiene and safety |
| 2 | Develop physical abilities through structured activities |
| 3 | Protect the environment and public health |
| 4 | Promote vaccination and disease prevention |
24.4. Political and National Values
Table 20.
Educational objectives of political values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Respect national symbols (flag, anthem) |
| 2 | Understand freedom, independence, and justice |
| 3 | Promote civic duty, social unity, and security |
24.5. Economic Values
Table 21.
Educational objectives of economic values.
| No. | Objective |
|---|---|
| 1 | Encourage work ethic and productivity |
| 2 | Promote responsibility for property and resources |
| 3 | Support local products and environmental stewardship |
25. The Normative and Psychological Weight of Values
Values embody a normative and psychological force beyond legal norms. They safeguard human dignity, orient social order, and provide intrinsic meaning. For adults, social and spiritual needs often outweigh material satisfaction, underscoring values’ centrality in shaping behavior [153]. When suppressed or disregarded, values may produce psychological trauma, alienation, and weakened social cohesion [15].
26. Moral Foundations and the Imperative for Pedagogical Reform
Sustainable educational reform begins with the recognition that widely shared moral rules anchor coherence and social continuity in stratified societies. Absent such ethical common ground, organizational routines become fragile and prone to drift [155]. Growing public discourse—across scholarship and media—has framed this as a crisis of civic and moral purpose, urging a shift toward holistic personal development and responsibility toward knowledge as a public good [54,55,138]. Within this reframing, knowledge is not merely instrumental but an expansive domain for critical inquiry, self-cultivation, and social progress; consequently, free will must be cultivated as ethically motivated agency, so that value internalization naturally expresses itself in responsible action [99,100,101,138].
27. Active Strategies for Cultivating Motivation and Moral Responsibility
In higher education, sustained motivation hinges on the intentional curation of the teacher’s “value baggage”—texts, cases, data, and artifacts drawn from authoritative primary sources with intellectual and ethical weight [56]. To balance rigor and engagement, didactic materials should be paired with context-rich examples, narratives, and case dilemmas, inviting dialogic appropriation rather than passive assimilation [52,57–156]. The aim is to coordinate assimilation (internalization of cultural value) with appropriation (active, reflective engagement), using structured teacher–student dialogue as a site of value transmission and ethical inquiry.
Table 22.
Active instructional strategies for value-oriented higher education.
| No. | Strategy (Mechanism) | Example implementation | Targeted outcome(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Primary-source curation (value baggage) | Canonical texts + contemporary cases | Epistemic rigor; value salience [156] |
| 2 | Dilemma discussion (KMDD/Just Community) | Weekly facilitated moral cases, rotating student chairs | Moral judgment; perspective-taking [26,52,104] |
| 3 | Service-learning with guided reflection | Course-embedded civic projects + reflective journals | Prosocial behavior; civic identity [110] |
| 4 | Constructive alignment | Outcomes–tasks–assessment alignment | Transfer; coherence; motivation [157] |
| 5 | Formative feedback on values-in-action | Rubrics for ethical reasoning + feedback cycles | Self-regulation; agency [108,120] |
| 6 | Case portfolios and learning contracts | Student-chosen cases with negotiated milestones | Autonomy; ownership; SDT needs [159] |
28. The Ethical Function of Knowledge and the Role of Responsibility
Knowledge carries regulatory force for individual and collective life; accordingly, curricula should integrate an ethics of responsibility so that learning itself constitutes a civic act [138]. Programmatic offerings ought to extend beyond pragmatic “business ethics” modules to include philosophical and applied ethics (e.g., bioethics, digital ethics, civic ethics), enabling students to analyze dilemmas across personal, professional, and societal domains [18]. Such breadth fosters responsibility toward profession, society, culture, and humanity, aligning expertise with public reason and democratic norms [99,100,101,138].
29. Personalized Educational Interaction: Toward Consultation-Based Learning
Lecture–seminar dominance can render instruction impersonal, attenuating teachers’ roles as moral mentors. Consultation-based learning—small-group and one-to-one tutorials—creates reflective spaces for recognition, tailored challenge, and ethical dialogue, thereby reinforcing intrinsic motivation and moral agency [56,59,60]. These consultations operate at the confluence of cognitive growth and responsibility, binding individual development to social accountability through goal setting, feedback, and values-infused advising [108,120,159].
Table 23.
Core components of consultation-based moral–intellectual development.
| No. | Component | Operationalization | Expected effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Recognition & relatedness | Regular tutor check-ins; narrative feedback | Intrinsic motivation; belonging [159,160] |
| 2 | Autonomy-supportive scaffolding | Choice of cases/topics; negotiated learning contracts | Ownership; self-regulation [157,159] |
| 3 | Mastery-focused feedback | Iterative drafts with criterion-referenced rubrics | Competence; transfer [120,157] |
| 4 | Ethical reflection integration | Values prompts in supervision notes and portfolios | Moral clarity; judgment [104,108] |
| 5 | Civic/practice linkage | Advising ties to service projects/internships | Civic identity; responsibility [110,131] |
30. The Role of the Formative Environment in Moral and Intellectual Development
Education is inseparable from the formative environment—the constellation of personal, cultural, and relational conditions shaping identity and value internalization. A consciously designed environment generates a “presentation effect,” motivating students to assume responsibility for self-development and align actions with ethical norms [61].
Formative ecosystems must therefore provide learners with diagnostic tools, ethical frameworks, and cultural references while embedding critical thinking and communication skills as prerequisites for democratic participation [162]. Such integration fosters intellectual autonomy and ethical decision-making, situating education as both a personal and civic endeavor.
31. Critical Thinking and the Crisis of Cognitive Development
Socio-economic reforms often falter because citizens lack cognitive readiness to confront complex social problems. Deficiencies in reasoning, worldview formation, and decision-making competencies impede developmental trajectories [83].
Since the late 20th century, scholars have emphasized critical thinking curricula that move beyond formal logic toward applied reasoning, combining problem-solving, memory training, and creativity [164]. Embedding such courses into higher education strengthens analytical and adaptive capacities, enabling students to respond effectively to technological and ethical challenges.
32. Communicative Studies and the Ethics of Interaction
Modern pluralistic societies require ethical communication competencies. Communicative studies—a multidisciplinary field—addresses the psychology, ethics, and etiquette of professional and interpersonal interaction [85].
Two axioms define the discipline:
- It is impossible not to communicate—even silence carries meaning.
- Every communicative act has content and relational dimensions, shaping interpretation and response.
Institutionalizing communicative studies equips students with dialogical skills, empathy, and ethical sensitivity, ensuring responsible participation in increasingly diverse environments [86].
33. Ethics as a Cornerstone of Educational Renewal
Ethics education remains underdeveloped, often reduced to utilitarian modules (e.g., etiquette, professional codes). While useful, these approaches overlook the transformative potential of ethics education. Expanding ethics curricula to include philosophical and applied dimensions empowers students to navigate diversity, resolve conflicts, and engage constructively in pluralistic societies [138,167].
Ethical literacy should thus be recognized as a core educational objective, linking academic training with civic responsibility and resilience in the face of cultural and technological disruption [118].
34. Teacher Professionalism and the Ethics of Communication
Educational reform also depends on teacher professionalism, particularly in communicative competencies. Evidence shows that responsive, personalized interaction by educators significantly enhances student motivation, compliance, and moral engagement [115,119].
Professional renewal must encompass not only disciplinary expertise but also the ability to serve as moral exemplars and relational guides. When teachers embody moral responsibility and communicative sensitivity, they transform instruction into a process of ethical modeling as well as knowledge transfer [170].
35. Mental and Behavioral Health: An Educational Concern
Mental and behavioral health disorders are a global challenge, linked to exclusion, unemployment, and diminished well-being [111]. Education, as a central site of socialization, plays a preventative role in shaping resilience.
An intersectoral approach integrating health, labor, welfare, and education is required. Schools and universities can act as frontline agents for early detection, counseling, and resilience-building through connectedness, purpose, and self-regulation [172]. By embedding psychosocial supports into curricula, institutions enhance both academic and ethical outcomes.
36. The Spiritual Dimension of Health and Education
Health must be conceived holistically, encompassing physical, mental, social, and spiritual dimensions. Spiritual well-being—anchored in beliefs, values, and purposeful action—provides stability, resilience, and moral orientation [113].
From this perspective, education should foster:
- Physical health – hygiene, nutrition, activity.
- Mental health – cognitive resilience and emotional regulation.
- Social health – interpersonal engagement and civic responsibility.
- Spiritual health – alignment of actions with transcendent moral purpose.
This integrative model situates the learner as a whole person, reinforcing the ethical mission of education [134].
37. Formation of Value Orientations Among University Students: Research Model and Findings
37.1. Methodology
A survey was conducted with 806 undergraduate students from health sciences, education, and literature faculties at universities in Tabriz during the 2007–2008 academic year. Using stratified random sampling, 403 students were selected, with 392 valid responses analyzed. Data were processed using frequency and percentage distributions, identifying patterns in value preferences [135].
37.2. Classification of Values
Table 24.
Classification of student value orientations.
| Category | Sub-dimension | Example values |
|---|---|---|
| Individual | Self-actualization | Scientific advancement, creativity |
| Moral responsibility | Honesty, courage, consistency | |
| Personal enrichment | Generosity, love, admiration | |
| Social | Interpersonal relations | Harmony, respect, good manners |
| Civil liberties | Freedom, equality, peace | |
| Transcendent | Recognition & realization | Fulfillment, purpose, recognition |
(Source: Adapted from Dawe & Loxton, 2004 [136]).
37.3. Key Observations
Findings reveal that students prioritize academic achievement, family welfare, and interpersonal harmony. Moral responsibility and honesty consistently ranked highest, indicating the persistence of ethical consciousness across contexts [137]. By contrast, values tied to ceremonial recognition or formal status displayed variability, suggesting uneven integration into lived practices.
38. Conclusion
This study provides an integrated account of value-oriented development in educational contexts by synthesizing philosophical, socio-psychological, and pedagogical perspectives with empirical evidence from university students’ value orientations. The findings reinforce a central proposition: educational environments are decisive not only for cognitive achievement but also for the cultivation of moral agency, psychosocial resilience, and civic responsibility.
When learning ecosystems are intentionally structured—through coherent curricula, ethically informed pedagogy, and supportive relational climates—students demonstrate stronger congruence between moral judgment and moral behavior, greater resilience in the face of challenges, and clearer commitments to prosocial engagement. Conversely, disruptions in the educational process—such as excessive academic pressure, teacher–student misalignment, peer conflict, or institutional deficits—undermine these outcomes by eroding mental health, weakening ethical motivation, and fragmenting value internalization.
Environments that emphasize dialogue, perspective-taking, empathy, and reflective practice strengthen students’ capacity to negotiate moral dilemmas and translate ethical reasoning into socially responsible action. Moreover, the evidence highlights that value orientations emerge through a complex interplay of individual dispositions, family dynamics, socioeconomic structures, and institutional climate, underscoring the need for interventions that are multi-level and context-sensitive.
38.1. Substantive Contributions
- Conceptual integration – The study articulates a multidimensional framework linking cultural, social, religious, moral, and scientific–educational values to psychosocial development, bridging classical moral theory with contemporary educational practice.
- Developmental emphasis – It situates adolescence and early adulthood as sensitive periods for moral formation, demonstrating how structured educational experiences can consolidate ethical identity and civic competence.
- Practical orientation – It translates theory into pedagogical strategies—including consultation-based learning, dilemma discussions, formative assessment of values, and humanities-driven axiological education—capable of aligning learning outcomes with ethical commitments.
38.2. Implications for Policy and Institutional Practice
- Value-oriented pedagogy: Curricula should embed explicit moral and civic objectives (justice, responsibility, empathy) and employ case-based, dialogic, and problem-centered methods linking ethical reasoning to real-world decision-making.
- Student-centered ecosystems: Institutions must redesign timetables and instructional formats to expand consultations, mentoring, and feedback loops that personalize moral development.
- Psychosocial supports: Counseling, peer-support networks, mental health screening, and referral systems should be integrated with academic advising to reduce stress, address incivility, and sustain well-being.
- Faculty development: Professional learning should emphasize communicative competence, ethical facilitation, culturally responsive pedagogy, and assessment of values and competencies, not merely content mastery.
- Assessment reform: Institutions should move beyond standardized metrics toward multi-source, formative evaluation (portfolios, reflective journals, observed practice) that evidences ethical reasoning, teamwork, civic participation, and integrity.
- Whole-institution alignment: Governance, codes of conduct, and co-curricular programming should consistently reflect the institution’s ethical mission, ensuring students encounter coherent value signals across all domains of campus life.
- Digital era safeguards: As teaching and assessment become increasingly digitalized, policies must protect human dignity, privacy, authorship, and fairness, ensuring that technological innovation supports rather than supplants humanistic aims.
38.3. Limitations
This analysis is constrained by its cross-sectional survey design within a single regional context and its reliance on self-reported value preferences, which may diverge from actual behaviors. Although triangulated with theoretical and comparative literature, causal inferences remain limited. Longitudinal and mixed-method designs are required to capture how values consolidate over time and across varied institutional and cultural settings.
38.4. Directions for Future Research
Future investigations should:
- Employ longitudinal, multi-cohort designs to model developmental trajectories linking moral judgment, empathy, identity, and behavior.
- Integrate behavioral measures (e.g., observed conduct, civic participation) and ecological indicators (peer networks, digital footprints) alongside self-reports.
- Test pedagogical interventions (dilemma discussions, consultation-based learning, service learning) and evaluate their effects on mental health, retention, and civic engagement.
- Examine equity-sensitive dynamics, including how socioeconomic status, gender, culture, and disciplinary contexts mediate value development.
- Investigate the ethical affordances and risks of educational technologies (AI-based tutoring, learning analytics) for autonomy, fairness, and moral agency.
38.5. Concluding Synthesis
Cultivating ethically grounded, critically minded, and socially responsible graduates requires more than curricular coverage; it demands the intentional design of moral ecosystems—where teaching, assessment, campus culture, and psychosocial supports mutually reinforce ethical internalization and responsible action.
Investment in value-oriented pedagogy, institutional infrastructures, and educator professionalism is not merely remedial but strategic. It positions higher education to fulfill its public mission: preparing individuals capable of navigating complexity with sound judgment, stewarding technological and economic change with integrity, and contributing to a more just, cohesive, and sustainable society.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the International Meetings and Journals Research Association (IMCRA) for its intellectual support during the conceptualization of this study. The author also expresses appreciation to colleagues in philosophy, sociology, and psychology whose works provided the theoretical foundation for this research.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
References
- Abdulazimova, A. U., Gasimov, K. G., Abbasov, M. A., Samadova, T. A., & Shahmuradov, I. A. (2023). Comparative studies on genome organization and evolution of some fish and crustacean species. Journal of Life Sciences and Biomedicine of ANAS, 3(3), 17–23. [CrossRef]
- Adler, A. (1969). The science of living. Anchor Books.
- Aliyev, Sh. (2025). Priorities for strengthening Azerbaijan’s economic security and sovereignty in the context of sustainable development. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(2), 420–446. [CrossRef]
- Alizada, S.; Musayev, S.h.; Rasulov, E. (2024). Molecular study of IDUA, IDS, GALNS, and GLB1 gene mutations in the Azerbaijan population. Journal of Life Sciences and Biomedicine of ANAS, 2. [CrossRef]
- Asadov, A.A. (2025). Comparative literary pedagogy: Analyzing the presence of world literature in Azerbaijani school textbooks. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(3), 512–527. [CrossRef]
- Asadov, A.A. (2025). Totalitarian obstacles and modern challenges in the study of world literature. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(5), 442–448. [CrossRef]
- Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
- Bertchy, P.; Vandel, J. (1991). Public discourse and the moral purpose of education. Journal of Educational Thought, 25(2), 121–137.
- Biehl, J. (1992). Philosophical and applied ethics in the curriculum. Ethics and Education, 6(1), 33–49.
- Biggs, J.; Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university (4th ed.). Open University Press.
- Blumer, H. (1982). Intellectual materials and value transmission in higher education. Sociology of Education, 55(3), 179–191.
- Booth, A.; Sutton, A.; Papaioannou, D. (2016). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Sage.
- Borenstein, M.; Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Wiley.
- Boudewijn, H. (1997). Formative environments and value internalization. Educational Review, 49(3), 287–300.
- Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood.
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husén & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (pp. 1643–1647). Pergamon.
- Bronfenbrenner, U.; Morris, P. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In R. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 793–828). Wiley.
- Brown, M. (1987). Critical thinking and democratic engagement. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 21(1), 43–56.
- Buckman, R. (1985). Cognitive readiness and socio-economic reform. Policy Sciences, 18(2), 97–112.
- Buckman, R.; Kellner, H. (1985). Communicative studies and ethics. Communication Monographs, 52(4), 321–336.
- Changeux, J.-P. (2002). The physiology of truth: Neuroscience and human knowledge. Harvard University Press.
- Cheung, M. W.-L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 211–229.
- Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39(7), 3–7.
- Colby, A.; Damon, W. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. Free Press.
- Collins, P. Y., & Lloyd, K. R. (1992). Global mental health challenges. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161(4), 448–456.
- Cummings, J. (1992). Education and behavioral health integration. Health Education Quarterly, 19(2), 173–188.
- Currie, C.; Elton, R.; Todd, J.; Platt, S. (1971). Spiritual health and education. Health Education Journal, 30(1), 3–10.
- Damon, W. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children’s natural moral growth. Free Press.
- Dawe, R.; Loxton, J. (2004). Student value orientations: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Moral Education, 33(2), 211–226.
- Day, C. (2004). A passion for teaching. RoutledgeFalmer.
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and self-determination. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.
- Demuth, C. (1983). Needs, values, and educational development. Educational Psychology, 3(2), 121–133.
- Diekstra, R. (1993). Values and resilience in education. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22(5), 451–468.
- Durkheim, E. (1912). Elementary forms of religious life. Free Press.
- Durkheim, E. (1973). Moral education. Free Press.
- Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432.
- Duval, S.; Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill. Biometrics, 56(2), 455–463.
- Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts. Development and Psychopathology, 23(2), 225–244.
- Egger, M.; Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple test. BMJ, 315, 629–634.
- Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 665–697.
- Eisner, E.W. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. Yale University Press.
- Engelberg, E.; Andersson, L.; Svensson, L. (1992). Individualized moral education: Approaches and outcomes. Journal of Moral Education, 21(3), 245–259.
- erkowitz, M.W.; Bier, M. C. (2005). What works in character education. Journal of Research in Character Education, 3(1), 19–32.
- Eyler, J.; Giles, D.E. (1999). Where’s the learning in service-learning? Jossey-Bass.
- Fabrega, H.; Goodman, M.; Silverman, C. (1991). Discipline and moral development in educational settings. Paedagogica Historica, 27(2), 155–172.
- Franken, R. (2002). Multidimensional perspectives on value education. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 34(4), 361–377.
- Franken, R.; Aliyev, K.; Najafov, R. (2025). Functional domains of values in education. Journal of Moral Education, 54(1), 17–39.
- Fromm, E. (1947). Man for himself: An inquiry into the psychology of ethics. Holt.
- Furfey, P. (1953). Value and its philosophical foundations. Philosophy Today, 7(2), 85–101.
- Garz, D. (1998). On the post-conventional stage of moral judgment. Journal of Moral Education, 27(2), 167–181.
- Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation analysis: An overview. Mass Communication and Society, 1(3–4), 175–194.
- Gibbs, J.C. (2014). Moral development and reality. Oxford University Press.
- González, T. (2012). Keeping kids in schools: Restorative justice. Journal of Law & Education, 41(2), 281–335.
- Güler, M. (2008). Values and cultural identity in contemporary societies. Journal of Ethics and Education, 12(3), 215–227.
- Güngör, E. (1995). Values and education. Istanbul University Press.
- Habermas, J. (1990). Moral consciousness and communicative action. MIT Press.
- Haley, J.; Christenson, P.; Allen, R. (1987). Adolescents’ moral ideals and motivation. Developmental Review, 7(4), 345–362.
- Hartshorne, H.; May, M. (1930). Studies in the nature of character. Macmillan.
- Hasin, S.; Jacobs, A.; Weber, L. (1988). Ideal–behavior congruence and moral autonomy in youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17(3), 231–244.
- Hasket, M. (1985). Values, trauma, and psychological resilience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 25(4), 412–425.
- Hasket, M. (1985). Vulnerabilities in adolescent moral development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26(3), 341–352.
- Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses. Routledge.
- Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
- Hedges, L. V., Tipton, E., & Johnson, M. C. (2010). Robust variance estimation. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3(3), 204–229.
- Heidbrink, H. (1991). Moral development and educational theory. Journal of Educational Philosophy, 25(4), 381–400.
- Higgins, A.; Power, F. C., & Kohlberg, L. (1984). The relationship of moral atmosphere and judgments to behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 571–581.
- Higgins, J.P. T., & Thomas, J. (Eds.). (2023). Cochrane handbook (Version 6.4). Wiley.
- Hogan, R.; Emler, N. (1978). The value of moral judgment. Journal of Social Issues, 34(4), 105–119.
- Horney, K. (1945). Our inner conflicts. W. W. Norton.
- Hume, D. (1975). An enquiry concerning human understanding (L. A. Selby-Bigge, Ed.). Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1748).
- Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization. Princeton University Press.
- Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic, and political change in 43 societies. Princeton University Press.
- Jeong, S.-H.; Cho, H.; Hwang, Y. (2012). Media literacy interventions: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 62(3), 454–472.
- Jones, L. M., & Mitchell, K. J. (2016). Defining and measuring youth digital citizenship. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 211–220.
- Killen, M.; Smetana, J.G. (2015). Handbook of moral development (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
- Koenig, H. G., McCullough, M., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford University Press.
- Kohlberg, L. (1974). Education, moral development and faith. Journal of Moral Education, 4(1), 5–16.
- Kohlberg, L. (1986). Essays on moral development: Vol. 2. The psychology of moral development. Harper & Row.
- Kohlberg, L. (1986). The just community approach to moral education. In A. Colby (Ed.), Essays on moral development (pp. 371–390). Harper & Row.
- Kohlberg, L. (1995). Moral development and moral education. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior (pp. 31–53). Holt. (Original work published 1968).
- Kohlberg, L. (2001). The philosophy of moral development. Harper & Row.
- Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(2), 123–135.
- Kuhmerker, L.; Gielen, U. P., & Hayes, R. (1996). The Kohlberg legacy. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Le Bon, G.; Martin, P.; Roberts, J. (2004). Moral education and social cohesion. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Contemporary issues in social psychology (pp. 201–220). Routledge.
- Lind, G. (2003). Moral competence and social responsibility. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(2), 91–100.
- Lind, G. (2003). Moral dilemma discussion. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(1), 1–19.
- Lind, G. (2003). The Konstanz method of dilemma discussion. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 18(1), 1–19.
- Lind, G. (2008). Moral judgment competence and democratic dispositions. Journal of Moral Education, 37(3), 335–353.
- Lind, G. (2015). Measuring moral competence with the MJT. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 57(4), 485–495.
- MacIntyre, A. (1981). After virtue. University of Notre Dame Press.
- MacIntyre, A. (1981). After virtue: A study in moral theory. University of Notre Dame Press.
- McShane, B. B., & Böckenholt, U. (2017). Selection models and evidence synthesis. Psychological Methods, 22(1), 119–138.
- Mead, G.H. (1962). Mind, self and society (C. W. Morris, Ed.). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1934).
- Mikayilli, B. (2025). Universities and the contemporary educational environment in developed countries: Comparative analysis of institutional innovation, entrepreneurial functions, and international research collaboration in Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(11), 450–465. [CrossRef]
- Mineka, S.; Johnson, R.; Lee, P. (2007). Humanities and democratic values. Journal of Cultural Studies, 15(3), 221–239.
- Mursaquliyev, M., Aliyeva, S., & Najafov, Sh. (2025). Archaeological summer schools as pedagogical platforms: Practical integration of field research, heritage education, and cultural identity formation in contemporary Azerbaijan. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(11), 627–635. [CrossRef]
- Mustafayev, N.; Mammadov, E.; Hasanov, A.; Huseynova, I. (2023). Disease-associated variations of autosomal STR loci: Minireview. Journal of Life Sciences and Biomedicine of ANAS, 2. [CrossRef]
- Najaf, A. N., & Najafov, R. (2025). Historical perspectives on education in medieval Azerbaijan (10th–16th centuries): Curriculum, methodology, and student mobility. Science, Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems, 8(11), 16–33. [CrossRef]
- Najafov, R. (2025b). Value orientations among university students: A cross-sectional analysis. Science, Education and Innovations, 8(1), 45–62.
- Narvaez, D.; Lapsley, D.K. (2009). Moral identity, moral functioning, and the development of character. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 50, 237–274.
- Narvaez, D.; Endicott, L.; Bock, T. (2003). Who should teach character? Educational Leadership, 60(6), 18–24.
- Noddings, N. (2002). Educating moral people. Teachers College Press.
- Nosek, B. A., Ebersole, C. R., DeHaven, A. C., & Mellor, D. T. (2018). The preregistration revolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(11), 2600–2606.
- Nucci, L.; Narvaez, D. (2008). Handbook of moral and character education. Routledge.
- Nussbaum, M.C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical defense of reform in liberal education. Harvard University Press.
- Nussbaum, M.C. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy needs the humanities. Princeton University Press.
- Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement. BMJ, 372, n71.
- Pandey, D.; Najafov, R. (2025). Frameworks for assessing spiritual and moral education. Ecosocial Studies: Banking, Finance and Cybersecurity Journal, 7(2), 44–59.
- Parsons, T. (1951). The social system. Free Press.
- Paul, R.; Elder, L. (2006). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. Pearson.
- Plato (1997) Complete works, (.J.M. Cooper & D. S. Hutchinson, Eds.). Hackett.
- Power, F.C. (1997). The just community approach. Journal of Moral Education, 26(3), 325–339.
- Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). Lawrence Kohlberg’s approach to moral education. Columbia University Press.
- Power, F. C., Higgins, A., & Kohlberg, L. (1989). Lawrence Kohlberg’s approach to moral education. Columbia University Press.
- Preston, S. D., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(1), 1–72.
- Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
- Rahman, F. (2010). Islamic perspectives on value and morality. Journal of Islamic Studies, 21(2), 145–162.
- Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press.
- Reed, L.; Stoermer, S. (2008). Revisiting Kohlberg: Current status of stage theory. Journal of Moral Education, 37(4), 475–493.
- Rest, J.; Narvaez, D. (1994). Moral development in the professions. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. Free Press.
- Rousseau, J.-J. (2004). The social contract (M. Cranston, Trans.). Penguin Classics. (Original work published 1762).
- Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65.
- Schwartz, S.H. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic values. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 1–20.
- Simonsohn, U.; Nelson, L. D., & Simmons, J. P. (2014). P-curve. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 534–547.
- Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
- Snarey, J. (1985). Cross-cultural universality of social-moral development: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 97(2), 202–232.
- Solomon, D.; Watson, M.; Battistich, V.; Schaps, E.; Delucchi, K. (2001). Caring school community program. Jossey-Bass.
- Sterne, J.A. C., & Egger, M. (2001). Funnel plots for detecting bias. BMJ, 323, 101–105.
- Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the self: The making of modern identity. Harvard University Press.
- Taylor, C. (1991). The ethics of authenticity. Harvard University Press.
- Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through SEL. Child Development, 88(4), 1156–1171.
- Toan, N. (2025). Pedagogical psychology and moral formation. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 9(1), 12–28.
- Turiel, E. (2008). Morality and prosocial judgments. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 321–352.
- Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together. Basic Books.
- Tyson, L. (1982). The psychology of education and moral development. Review of Educational Research, 52(2), 225–243.
- Valentine, J. C., & Cooper, H. (2008). A systematic approach for synthesizing research. Review of Educational Research, 78(6), 1111–1136.
- Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with metafor. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48.
- Vosoughi, S.; Roy, D.; Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151.
- Watzlawick, P.; Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication. Norton.
- Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society (G. Roth & C. Wittich, Eds.). University of California Press. (Original work published 1922).
- Welzel, C.; Inglehart, R. (2005). Modernization, cultural change, and democracy. Cambridge University Press.
- Wienpahl, P. (1948). Morality and ethics: A systematic approach. Philosophical Review, 57(4), 421–438.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Copyright: This open access article is published under a Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license, which permit the free download, distribution, and reuse, provided that the author and preprint are cited in any reuse.
