Risk and Protective Factors in the Transition Out of Sport: A Scoping Review on the Psychological Adjustment of Professional Athletes

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Several international studies have addressed the issue of career endings in professional athletes and the closely related concept of dual careers (Zimet et al., 2024; Ryan, 2019; Haslam, 2024; Rajaram, 2021). In particular, studies on former Spanish Olympians, Scandinavian elite athletes, and selected groups of Brazilian athletes highlight that the transition out of sport can be an extremely critical phase, not only psychologically, but also socially and professionally (Jewett et al., 2019; Cosh et al., 2021; Montero et al., 2024; Zimmerman, 2024; Rajaram, 2021; Shander & Petrie, 2021). When not adequately supported, this phase can lead to identity moratorium, loss of meaning, depressive symptoms, and social isolation (Haslam et al., 2021; Zimet et al., 2024; Giannone et al., 2017; Ahmann, 2023; Welch, 2023; Rajaram, 2021; De Cristofano et al., 2024).

The scientific literature highlights multiple risk factors that can emerge in this transition phase, such as a strong identification with athletic identity, often constructed since childhood and never questioned (Giannone et al., 2017; Mooney et al., 2024; Ryan, 2019; Shinnick, 2024; Filippini et al., 2023; Filippini et al., 2023; Cristofanelli et al., 2023; Di Sarno et al., 2019), the lack of a post-career plan (디피카, 2021; Ryan, 2019), the absence of adequate psychological and social support (Lenton, 2020; Barcza-Renner, 2020; Jewett et al., 2019), forced retirement due to injury or deselection (Ahmann, 2023; Rajaram, 2021; Zimet et al., 2024), as well as gender and sport-related inequalities (individual or team sports) (Montero et al., 2024; Shander & Petrie, 2021; Scognamiglio & Scia, 2022; Diamare et al., 2020). The presence of a structured dual career model, the possibility for athletes to combine sport with education, work, or training, has been identified by several studies as one of the main protective factors for athletes in the post-career transition phase (Haslam et al., 2021; Lenton, 2020; Rich et al., 2022; Barcza-Renner, 2020). Athletes who have pursued parallel academic or professional paths have shown better adaptation, greater self-efficacy, and often a more positive perception of retirement. The concept of dual career, in its broadest sense, refers to the opportunity for athletes to develop a secondary identity, to be several things at once: athlete, worker, parent, active citizen (Haslam, 2024; Haslam et al., 2021; Menke, 2019; Lenton, 2020; Jewett et al., 2019; Cosh et al., 2021). It is important to note that psychological support is provided during the transition. Theoretical models such as SIMIC (Social Identity Model of Identity Change) and Ruthven's model of transition emphasize the need for emotional and narrative support to accompany athletes, already in the midst of their careers, on a path of orientation, identity development, and planning for the future (Haslam et al., 2021; Zimet et al., 2024; De Santo et al., 2019). Similar experiences already exist at the international level: In Spain, the Fundación Trinidad Alfonso promotes dual career programs in Valencia; in France, INSEP has an integrated model of sports career, education, and psychological support; in Belgium, the University of Leuven has established sport-psychology hubs for student athletes. In Italy, too, “Sport2Next” is being developed, a multidimensional model characterised by direct experience, peer mentoring, knowledge of the sports system and attention to the individual.

1.2. Aims

In this review, we have examined recent literature on the risk and protective factors that influence the psychological, social, and professional adaptation of athletes in the post-career phase. Our goal was to gather all the information related to this transition phase, as we believe that an integrated set of findings on this topic can offer a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of athletic retirement. At the same time, these findings provide the basis for the development of increasingly specific and targeted intervention models to support athletes, already in the midst of their careers, in a process of orientation, identity development, and planning for the future.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research and Recovery

Scoping reviews are a useful methodological tool for exploring and organizing key concepts in existing literature on topics that are still under-researched or lack established evidence. By analyzing a wide selection of articles, this type of review provides a general overview of a given topic, highlighting emerging trends in cases where research questions specific enough for a systematic review have not yet been defined.

This work was conducted following the guidelines of the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), which provides a set of 20 mandatory criteria (plus two optional ones) to ensure the methodological consistency of the review (Tricco et al., 2018). The aim of our analysis was to identify all peer-reviewed articles in English published between January 2015 and January 2025 that focused on risk and protective factors associated with post-career transition in professional athletes. The time window was extended to ten years because a search limited to the most recent five years did not yield a sufficient number of relevant articles.

The search terms were defined based on a preliminary assessment of the existing literature and an exploratory analysis conducted using ChatGPT. The bibliographic search phase took place between January and June 2025. The sources retrieved from different databases were unified into a single dataset after removing duplicates. The search strategies included combinations of keywords according to the following thematic clusters, using the Boolean operator AND: (1) “Psychological distress AND athletic retirement”; (2) “Protective factor AND life after sport”; (3) “Social support AND post career adjustment”; (4) “Identity loss and former athletes”; (5) “Dual career AND retirement from sport”.

The searches were conducted in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Table 1 describes the inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the selection of articles. Studies that did not fall within the time frame evaluated, did not meet the eligibility criteria, or were not in line with the search terms used were excluded from our review.

Table 1. Elegibility and Exclusion Criteria.

Elegibility Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
1. Published in English 2. Published within the last 10 years 3. Published in a peer-reviewed journal 4. Empirical research on the transition to post-career life in professional athletes, with a focus on psychological aspects.	1. Books 2. Literature reviews 3. Articles not focused on the post-career transition phase or not addressing issues related to psychological distress.

Table 1. Elegibility and Exclusion Criteria.

Elegibility Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
1. Published in English 2. Published within the last 10 years 3. Published in a peer-reviewed journal 4. Empirical research on the transition to post-career life in professional athletes, with a focus on psychological aspects.	1. Books 2. Literature reviews 3. Articles not focused on the post-career transition phase or not addressing issues related to psychological distress.

Table 2. Prototype table.

Title

Authors and Year

Sample

Study Aim

Data Analysed

Conclusion

Table 2. Prototype table.

Title

Authors and Year

Sample

Study Aim

Data Analysed

Conclusion

Table 3. Thematic Macro-Categories Identified by the Chatbot.

Category	N. records	Description
Barriers in transition	6	Focus on obstacles in the post-career phase (e.g., emotional difficulties, lack of support). Importance of planning
Importance of planning	3	Emphasize the importance of advance preparation for the transition.
Cultural influence on dual career	2	Analyze how the sociocultural context influences support for dual careers.
Positive role of dual career	1	Dual career as a factor facilitating transition.
Limits of dual career	1	Dual career programs are not always effective.
Other	53	Very varied conclusions or conclusions that are not easily categorized.

Table 3. Thematic Macro-Categories Identified by the Chatbot.

Category	N. records	Description
Barriers in transition	6	Focus on obstacles in the post-career phase (e.g., emotional difficulties, lack of support). Importance of planning
Importance of planning	3	Emphasize the importance of advance preparation for the transition.
Cultural influence on dual career	2	Analyze how the sociocultural context influences support for dual careers.
Positive role of dual career	1	Dual career as a factor facilitating transition.
Limits of dual career	1	Dual career programs are not always effective.
Other	53	Very varied conclusions or conclusions that are not easily categorized.

2.2. Study Selection

The study selection process was divided into two phases and managed through the Rayyan platform (Ouzzani et al., 2016). In the first phase, we selected articles based on their title and abstract, excluding those not focused on the transition to post-career for professional athletes or the psychological distress associated with it. In the second phase, a second selection of these studies was made by reading the articles in full. Three independent researchers carried out the selection; any discrepancies were resolved by discussion between two reviewers or, if necessary, with the involvement of a third expert in the field.

2.3. Methodological Quality Assessment

Based on the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews, the methodological quality of the studies was not assessed.

2.4. Data Extraction and Selection

This study involved the collaboration of five experts: two in sports psychology, one in sports coaching, and two in clinical psychology research. To extract the data, the selected articles were imported into a new Rayyan project. After reading them in full, the relevant information was collected using a standardized form created specifically for this purpose. As with the selection phase, the extraction also required the contribution of two independent reviewers and the resolution of conflicts by a third researcher with expertise in the field. All final decisions were shared within the team through collegial discussions. It was therefore not necessary to apply inter-rater reliability tests. The screening process, divided into two phases, consisted of a first phase of reading the titles and abstracts and a second phase of evaluating the full texts. The following keywords were searched using the PubMed database: (1) “Protective factor AND life after sport”; (2) “Social support AND post-career adjustment”; (3) “Psychological distress AND athletic retirement”; (4) “Identity loss and former athletes”; (5) “Dual career AND retirement from sport.” The search for the first two keywords yielded 22 and 25 results, respectively. After reading the titles and abstracts in full, no articles were considered relevant to the focus of the study and categorizable according to the eligibility and exclusion criteria listed in the study. With regard to the third keyword, “Psychological distress AND athletic retirement,” the database search yielded 12 results, of which only 5 were included in our exploratory review and consulted in full text. The keyword “Identity loss and former athletes” produced 2 results, both of which were consulted in full text and deemed relevant to the focus of our study. With regard to the keyword “Dual career AND retirement from sport,” the database search produced 8 results, of which only 5 were included in the exploratory review and subsequently consulted in full text.

The same set of keywords used for the PubMed search was applied to a search in the Google Scholar database. The keyword “Protective factor AND life after sport” yielded 18,800 results, but none of the articles met the relevance criteria defined for the study objective. The second keyword, “Social support AND post career adjustment,” yielded 17,800 results, of which, after consulting up to the twelfth page of the database, no articles were considered relevant and categorizable in accordance with the eligibility criteria specified in our research protocol. The search for the keyword “Psychological distress AND athletic retirement” yielded 15,900 results. The search extended up to the eighth page of Google Scholar, resulting in the selection of 30 articles identified as relevant to the investigation of psychological distress associated with the post-career transition phase of professional athletes. Those studies were considered eligible and reviewed in full text. The search for the keyword “Identity loss AND former athletes” yielded 18,323 results, of which 21 articles were included in our exploratory review and consulted in full text. The search for the keyword “Dual career AND retirement from sport” produced 17,200 results. The search was conducted up to the sixth page of Scholar, selecting 25 articles relevant to the focus of the study, of which only 19 were considered categorizable according to the eligibility and exclusion criteria established for our study.

Of the 149 abstracts evaluated in the first screening phase, only 82 were relevant and addressed the issue of risk and protective factors influencing the psychological, social, and professional adaptation of athletes in the post-career phase. These 82 publications, deemed eligible, were consulted in their entirety. Of these 82 articles, 13 were excluded in the first phase, based on the exclusion criteria described above. Further selection led to the exclusion of 3 more articles, as one was not an article on athletic retirement but aimed to validate a tool; the other two had a marginal focus with respect to the central theme of our study. Finally, it was possible to identify 66 publications that were included in our exploratory review.

2.5. Data Representation Process

The results were organized and presented using tables, graphs, and diagrams. In order to summarize the results schematically, it was necessary to develop an initial table. Additional graphical representations were useful in developing an overview of the studies analyzed, highlighting the most relevant data that emerged.

3. Results

3.1. Selection of Sources of Evidence

A total of 66 sources of evidence were selected and, after verifying their suitability, were included in the review. During the initial screening phase, documents that, based on an analysis of the abstract, were found to be irrelevant to the research topic, or were books and book chapters, were excluded, as per the established inclusion criteria. Subsequently, we also excluded opinion pieces, literature reviews, and research whose focus was marginal to the topic under investigation. This process is described graphically in the flowchart (Figure 1).

3.2. Characteristics of Sources of Evidence

We have included all the articles included in our exploratory review in a table, which outlines the objective of the study, the sample, the data analyzed, and the conclusions for each article, as shown in the Tab. 2.

3.3. Characteristics of Sources of Evidence

Using artificial intelligence, we organized the 66 articles collected for our exploratory review. We asked Chat GPT to analyze the descriptive table containing all the studies and identify categories that grouped articles with similar methodologies and conclusions. As described in Table 4, the chatbot identified six recurring thematic macro-categories, albeit with varying levels of depth and methodologies.

(1) The most represented category is “Barriers in transition.” It includes six studies that address the difficulties athletes experience in the transition phase after retiring from sport. Identity disorientation, psychological stress, emotional difficulties, and a lack of institutional or social support are the issues most frequently cited in the studies.(2) “Importance of planning” includes three studies that emphasize that early preparation for the end of a sporting career is a protective factor for this transition phase. The structuring of professional orientation programs and the presence of psychological support allow athletes to experience this transition to post-sport life with greater serenity.

(3) The category “Cultural influence on dual career” includes two studies that highlight the influence of the socio-cultural context on the effectiveness of integrating sports and work careers. The institutional structures of more developed countries offer greater support to athletes during their transition to post-sport life.

(4) “Positive role of dual career” includes only one study that focuses on dual careers as a protective factor for the end of a sporting career: educational or professional paths parallel to sporting activities allow athletes to experience the end of their sporting careers with greater peace of mind.

(5) “Limits of dual career” is another category represented by a single study that highlighted that sometimes dual career programs do not guarantee real preparation or an effective transition to life after sport.

(6) Most of the studies (53 out of 66) were grouped into a category called “Other,” which includes studies that couldn't be classified into any of the previous categories. These articles deal with specific or marginal aspects using methodologies that can't be compared.

3.4. Synthesis of Results

Table 4 presents a summary of the review results.

4. Discussion

This scoping review frames the phenomenon of transition to post-sport life as a complex process influenced by psychological, social, and cultural variables. Unintegrated athletic identity represents one of the main risk factors for athletes developing disorientation, anxiety, and adaptive difficulties following retirement (Giannone et al., 2021; Schmid, 2018; Huml et al., 2014; Menke & Germany, 2021; Mooney & Roderick, 2021). Studies show that high athletic identification is a strength during one's career but a source of negative emotions at the time of retirement (Ryan, 2019). In this sense, the literature highlights that unplanned retirement due to injury or deselection increases the risk of psychological distress and a more general feeling of loss of control (Ahmann, 2023; Rajaram, 2021; Zimmerman et al., 2024). The most represented category is “Barriers in transition”, characterised by six studies (Mateo-Orcajada et al., 2022; Moreno et al., 2021; Tekavc et al., 2015; Papathomas et al., 2025; DeFreese et al., 2021; Stavitz et al., 2025), recognizes the lack of emotional and institutional support, loss of social role, and emotional stress as the main obstacles to well-being in the post-career phase. Confirming this, other authors (Stambulova et al., 2007; Park et al., 2013; Lally, 2007; Barriopedro et al., 2018) have emphasized the need for ongoing psychological support and personalized strategies to cope with identity change. One of the main protective factors is the ability to plan for retirement from sport in advance. Recent studies have shown that preparing for retirement during one's sporting career improves future adaptation (Hong & Hong, 2023; Ryan, 2019; 디피카, 2021). In line with previous studies (Lavallee, 2005; Stambulova et al., 2009), DeFreese et al. (2021) argue that clear planning can drastically reduce the subsequent risk of maladjustment. The dual career, understood as a combination of a sports career and an educational or professional path, plays a crucial role in some studies as a protective factor in the construction of multiple identities and self-efficacy (Torregrosa et al., 2015; Tshube et al., 2015). Other studies (Nyberg et al., 2023) question the real effectiveness of these programs, especially in the absence of an adequate organizational structure. The sociocultural context is another discriminating factor for retirement from sport. The availability of resources and a supportive institutional culture (Kuettel et al., 2020: Mateos-Padorno et al., 2021), as well as gender and economic disparities (Barriopedro et al., 2018; Barrett et al., 2020; Bergström et al., 2023), have a significant impact on determining athletes' paths to reintegration into work and society.

Finally, some contributions (Lenton et al., 2023; Ronkainen et al., 2020; Holding et al., 2022) propose innovative intervention models aimed at increasing athletes' ability to rework their sporting experience and develop new identity trajectories. These approaches are characterized as narrative spaces, psychological support, and personalized career guidance.

5. Conclusion

From this scoping review, it can be concluded that the transition to post-career life is an extremely critical phenomenon, influenced by individual, relational, and structural factors. An exclusive and unintegrated athletic identity; forced or unplanned retirement; and a lack of adequate emotional, family, or professional support are the main risk factors. The protective factors that emerged are: advance planning of the transition; the existence of a well-structured dual career; the presence of cultural and organizational contexts that facilitate the athlete's transition; and access to psychological, narrative, and guidance interventions during and after the athletic career. The use of artificial intelligence for the categorization of studies has made it possible to highlight with greater precision the thematic convergences between the contributions analyzed, offering a systematic overview useful both for the design of future interventions and for the planning of more inclusive sports policies.

6. Limits and Future Developments

Despite the breadth of the research and the use of advanced digital tools for thematic categorization, this study has some limitations. First, many studies do not provide clear details on the design, tools, and methods of analysis used, making rigorous methodological comparison difficult. Second, the literature analyzed is dominated by qualitative studies or narrative reviews, with few systematic quantitative data or longitudinal studies that allow causal inferences or evaluations of the effectiveness of interventions. A further limitation of the study is the heterogeneity of the concepts of dual career, retirement, career transition, and athletic identity, which are not always used consistently and sometimes overlap. Although the use of AI has allowed for a broad and structured classification, the automatic categorization of themes and methods may have overlooked some conceptual nuances, especially in works with less standardized formulations. Finally, some subgroups of athletes (athletes with disabilities, athletes from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, or minor disciplines) are underrepresented in the literature reviewed, limiting the generalizability of the results. The results of this analysis suggest some fundamental directions for enhancing research and improving interventions in the post-career transition phase of athletes. First, it appears necessary to develop structured and standardized protocols for psychological and professional support that can be integrated into federal or academic sports programs associated with interventions on identity, training, emotional support, and career guidance (Glorioso et al., 2024). A second priority area concerns the need for longitudinal and quantitative studies that allow athletes to be monitored over time, from the moment of retirement to the construction of new identities and life paths. Through the use of validated tools and the contribution of artificial intelligence (Cioffi et al., 2025), such studies would allow for a more accurate assessment of the effectiveness of interventions and the weight of psychological, social, and economic variables throughout an athlete's career. Recognizing the influence of cultural and organizational contexts, a comparative approach between countries could offer useful insights for building flexible intervention models that are sensitive to cultural specificities. Finally, in order to guide policies that are truly equitable and sensitive to diversity, it is desirable to broaden the research targets to include Paralympic athletes, people from marginalized backgrounds, or those with atypical sporting trajectories.