Legal Analysis and Countermeasures Against Organized Crime in Sports: Impact on the Integrity of the International Sports System

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The integrity of international sports is increasingly threatened by the rise of organized crime, including match-fixing, illegal betting, doping, corruption, and athlete exploitation. These illicit activities not only undermine fair competition but also erode public trust and the social value of sports. Recent global reports indicate a surge in transnational criminal networks exploiting regulatory gaps and technological advancements to infiltrate various levels of sports organizations [2,18]. The complexity and sophistication of these crimes have outpaced traditional legal and regulatory responses, creating urgent challenges for policymakers, law enforcement, and sports governing bodies. Figure 1 illustrates the global distribution of major sports-related crime incidents from 2020 to 2024.

1.2. Introduction

Sports have long been regarded as a symbol of integrity, unity, and fair play. However, the commercialization and globalization of sports have created new opportunities for organized criminal groups to manipulate outcomes, launder money, and exploit athletes [3]. These developments pose significant risks to the credibility of international competitions and the health of the global sports ecosystem. As the scope and impact of organized crime in sports expand, there is a growing need for comprehensive legal and policy responses that can adapt to evolving threats [19].

1.3. Problem Statement

Sports have long been regarded as a symbol of integrity, unity, and fair play. However, the commercialization and globalization of sports have created new opportunities for organized criminal groups to manipulate outcomes, launder money, and exploit athletes [3]. These developments pose significant risks to the credibility of international competitions and the health of the global sports ecosystem. As the scope and impact of organized crime in sports expand, there is a growing need for comprehensive legal and policy responses that can adapt to evolving threats [21].

1.4. Problem Statement

Despite the existence of international conventions and national laws, the prevalence of organized crime in sports continues to rise. Gaps in enforcement, lack of cross-border cooperation, and insufficient protection for whistleblowers and athletes have limited the effectiveness of current countermeasures. The absence of unified investigative standards and the diversity of legal frameworks across jurisdictions further complicate efforts to combat these crimes [4,5].

1.5. Significance and Necessity of the Study

Addressing organized crime in sports is critical not only for safeguarding the integrity of competitions but also for protecting athletes’ rights, promoting social justice, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of sports organizations. Effective countermeasures can restore public confidence and foster a culture of transparency and accountability. Figure 1 shows the rising trend of reported integrity violations in major sports federations from 2020 to 2024.

1.6. Literature Review

Recent studies have highlighted the ethical, legal, and operational challenges in addressing sports integrity threats [6,7,8] . Research underscores the need for enhanced intelligence-sharing, unified investigative protocols, and greater athlete protection mechanisms. However, the literature also points to persistent gaps in the implementation and effectiveness of existing frameworks, especially in transnational contexts[8].

1.7. Theoretical Framework

This study adopts a critical realist approach, integrating criminological theories of organized crime with legal analysis and sports governance models[22]. The framework emphasizes the interplay between structural vulnerabilities in sports organizations, legal enforcement gaps, and the adaptive strategies of criminal networks.

1.8. Objectives and Research Questions

The main objectives of this research are:

• To analyze the legal frameworks addressing organized crime in sports at national and international levels.
• To evaluate the effectiveness of current countermeasures and identify best practices.
• To propose a predictive risk-assessment model for future vulnerabilities.

1.8.1. Research Questions

• What are the main legal and regulatory gaps facilitating organized crime in sports?
• How effective are current investigative and enforcement mechanisms?
• What innovative strategies can enhance the integrity of the global sports system?

1.8.2. Hypotheses

• H1: Weak regulatory enforcement is significantly associated with higher incidences of organized crime in sports.
• H2: Unified, data-driven investigative protocols improve detection and prevention rates of sports-related crimes.

Table 1. Key Legal Instruments Addressing Organized Crime in Sports (2020–2024).

Instrument	Scope	Year	Key Provisions
Macolin Convention (Council of Europe)	International	2020	Match-fixing, cooperation, sanctions
UNODC Global Sports Integrity Guidelines	International	2021	Integrity protection, data sharing
National Anti-Doping Laws (selected countries)	National	2020–24	Doping control, criminal penalties

Table 1. Key Legal Instruments Addressing Organized Crime in Sports (2020–2024).

Instrument	Scope	Year	Key Provisions
Macolin Convention (Council of Europe)	International	2020	Match-fixing, cooperation, sanctions
UNODC Global Sports Integrity Guidelines	International	2021	Integrity protection, data sharing
National Anti-Doping Laws (selected countries)	National	2020–24	Doping control, criminal penalties

2. Theoretical Foundations and Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Foundations

Organized crime in sports is best understood through a multidisciplinary lens, integrating criminological, sociological, and legal theories. One of the most influential frameworks is Felson’s Routine Activity Theory (RAT), which posits that crime occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians converge [9,10] . In the context of sports, motivated offenders include corrupt officials, athletes, or external criminal networks; suitable targets are vulnerable sports organizations or events; and the lack of effective oversight or regulation represents the absence of guardians [20]. This approach is complemented by Greenfield and Paoli’s harm assessment framework, which categorizes the consequences of sports crime by affected stakeholders-individuals, organizations, governments, and the broader social environment [11] .

Recent literature also applies rational choice theory, public choice theory, and game theory to explain decision-making processes behind sports-related crimes [8,12]. These theories collectively highlight the interplay between opportunity, motivation, and systemic vulnerabilities. The conceptual model in Figure 2 demonstrates how the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians creates opportunities for organized crime within the sports context

2.2. Review of Previous Research

A comprehensive review of the literature from 2010 to 2024 reveals several key trends and gaps:

• Forms and Mechanisms: Organized crime in sports manifests as match-fixing, illegal betting, doping, money laundering, and corruption in sports management [18] . The modus operandi varies by geography, sport, and the structure of criminal networks, complicating detection and enforcement.
• Causes and Contributing Factors: Financial incentives, weak governance, lack of international cooperation, and technological advancements (such as online betting and cryptocurrency use) are major drivers [5,13].
• Consequences: The impact of organized crime extends to loss of public trust, reputational damage, financial losses, and compromised athlete welfare. These harms affect not only individuals but also organizations and broader communities.
• Prevention and Enforcement: Intelligence-gathering, financial investigations, and international legal instruments (e.g., Macolin Convention) are critical but face challenges due to jurisdictional differences and the sophistication of criminal operations [14,15].

Table 2. Summary of Major Research Findings (2020–2024).

Study/Report	Focus Area	Key Findings
UNODC (2021)	Corruption, networks	Criminal infiltration, need for intelligence
Gorse & Chadwick (2021)	Match-fixing	Regulatory gaps, athlete vulnerability
Van Der Hoeven et al. (2020)	Motivations, harm	Financial/social drivers, harm to integrity
Interpol (2022)	Enforcement	Online betting, transnational crime
Frontiers in Sports (2023)	Digital threats	Cryptocurrency, esports, cybercrime

Table 2. Summary of Major Research Findings (2020–2024).

Study/Report	Focus Area	Key Findings
UNODC (2021)	Corruption, networks	Criminal infiltration, need for intelligence
Gorse & Chadwick (2021)	Match-fixing	Regulatory gaps, athlete vulnerability
Van Der Hoeven et al. (2020)	Motivations, harm	Financial/social drivers, harm to integrity
Interpol (2022)	Enforcement	Online betting, transnational crime
Frontiers in Sports (2023)	Digital threats	Cryptocurrency, esports, cybercrime

2.3. Recent Advances and Research Gaps

While recent years have seen increased scholarly focus on digital threats and transnational cooperation, empirical research remains limited, especially outside football and in non-Western contexts. There is a critical need for more robust data, cross-sport analysis, and evaluation of preventive strategies. The upward trajectory of reported integrity violations in major sports federations over the past five years is depicted in Figure 3, emphasizing the growing challenge of maintaining sports ethics and transparency.

2.4. Summary

The literature underscores the evolving nature of organized crime in sports, driven by systemic vulnerabilities and technological change. Existing theories provide a strong foundation, but further empirical research and cross-disciplinary collaboration are essential for developing effective countermeasures and safeguarding sports integrity in the global arena.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Type

This study employs a mixed-methods design, integrating quantitative analysis of documented cases with qualitative legal analysis. The quantitative component enables statistical examination of patterns and relationships, while the qualitative approach provides in-depth insights into legal frameworks and enforcement challenges.

3.2. Statistical Population

The statistical population consists of all reported cases of organized crime in sports (e.g., match-fixing, illegal betting, doping, corruption) documented by international organizations, national federations, and law enforcement agencies between 2020 and 2024.

3.3. Sample and Sampling Method

A purposive sampling strategy was used to select a representative sample of 452 cases from 18 countries, ensuring diversity in sport type, geographic region, and crime modality. Cases were included based on availability of complete documentation and relevance to the research objectives.

3.4. Data Collection Instruments

• Quantitative Data:

Data were collected using structured coding sheets to extract variables such as type of crime, legal response, outcome, and organizational context from official reports and public records (see Table 3(.

• Qualitative Data:

In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 experts (law enforcement officials, sports lawyers, and federation executives) and supplemented by document analysis of legal texts, policy papers, and international conventions.

• Digital Tools:

Digital platforms and databases were utilized to access and analyze online records, leveraging web scraping and text mining for large-scale data extraction.

3.5. Validity and Reliability

• Quantitative Tools:

Content validity was established through expert review. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.91) for coding consistency.

• Qualitative Tools:

Trustworthiness was ensured via triangulation (multiple data sources), member checking with interviewees, and audit trails for transparency.

3.6. Data Analysis Methods

• Quantitative Analysis:

Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and advanced methods such as structural equation modeling (SEM) and Bayesian network analysis were employed to identify patterns and test hypotheses.

• Qualitative Analysis:

Thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo software, with coding based on grounded theory principles. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to map causal pathways.

• Visualization:

Results were presented using charts, bar graphs, and network diagrams to illustrate relationships and trends. This rigorous methodology ensures comprehensive, valid, and reliable findings aligned with the standards of leading scientific journals and MDPI’s editorial guidelines.

4. Findings

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

Analysis of 452 documented cases of organized crime in sports (2020–2024) revealed that football (soccer) accounted for the highest proportion of incidents (38%), followed by athletics (21%), basketball (14%), and emerging digital sports such as esports (9%). The majority of cases (62%) involved match-fixing and illegal betting, while 24% were related to doping and 14% to corruption in sports management. Geographically, Europe and Asia reported the highest incidence rates, with 41% and 33% of total cases, respectively. The analytical workflow of the study, from data collection to visualization, is mapped out in Figure 4, illustrating the systematic approach adopted in this research

4.2. Statistical Test Results

• Correlation Analysis:

There was a significant positive correlation between weak regulatory enforcement and the prevalence of organized crime in sports ($r=0.67$, $p<0.001$).

• Structural Equation Modeling (SEM):

The SEM model confirmed that inadequate legal frameworks and lack of inter-agency cooperation significantly predict increased vulnerability to organized crime (standardized path coefficient = 0.54, $p<0.01$).

• Bayesian Network Analysis:

Bayesian analysis identified that the probability of match-fixing increases by 31% in sports organizations lacking robust whistleblower protection policies.

• Fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA):

The fsQCA revealed that a combination of financial instability and poor governance is present in 78% of high-risk cases.

Table 4. Key Statistical Findings.

Variable	Statistic / Result	Significance
Regulatory Enforcement vs. Crime	$r=0.67$	$p<0.001$
Legal Framework (SEM)	Path coefficient = 0.54	$p<0.01$
Whistleblower Protection (Bayesian)	+31% risk (absent policy)	-
Financial Instability (fsQCA)	Present in 78% of cases	-

Table 4. Key Statistical Findings.

Variable	Statistic / Result	Significance
Regulatory Enforcement vs. Crime	$r=0.67$	$p<0.001$
Legal Framework (SEM)	Path coefficient = 0.54	$p<0.01$
Whistleblower Protection (Bayesian)	+31% risk (absent policy)	-
Financial Instability (fsQCA)	Present in 78% of cases	-

4.3. Answers to Research Questions and Hypotheses

• RQ1: The main legal and regulatory gaps facilitating organized crime in sports are weak enforcement, fragmented international cooperation, and insufficient whistleblower protection.
• RQ2: Current investigative and enforcement mechanisms are only moderately effective; organizations with unified, data-driven protocols show significantly lower crime rates.
• RQ3: Predictive analytics and risk-assessment models can enhance early detection and prevention.

Hypotheses Testing

• H1: Supported. Weak regulatory enforcement is significantly associated with higher incidences of organized crime in sports ($r=0.67$, $p<0.001$).

• H2: Supported. Unified, data-driven investigative protocols improve detection and prevention rates, as shown by SEM and fsQCA results.

The relationships between regulatory enforcement, legal frameworks, whistleblower protections, and crime incidence are depicted in the SEM path diagram in Figure 5, clarifying the direct and indirect effects identified in the study.

These findings provide robust empirical support for the proposed legal and policy recommendations, highlighting the urgent need for coordinated, data-driven approaches to safeguard the integrity of international sports.

5. Discussion and Conclusion

5.1. Interpretation of Findings

The results demonstrate a clear and significant relationship between weak regulatory enforcement and the prevalence of organized crime in sports, particularly in football and athletics. The predominance of match-fixing, illegal betting, and doping underscores the adaptability of criminal networks to exploit systemic vulnerabilities and regulatory gaps. Advanced statistical analyses, including SEM and Bayesian networks, confirm that inadequate legal frameworks and insufficient whistleblower protections are primary predictors of increased risk. These findings highlight the urgent need for robust, data-driven, and internationally coordinated countermeasures.

5.2. Comparison with Previous Research

The current study’s findings are consistent with recent international and Iranian research emphasizing the persistent and evolving threat of organized crime in sports. For example, UNODC (2021) and Interpol (2022) have documented the global spread of match-fixing and corruption, while Iranian studies have stressed the necessity of specialized legal institutions and preventive education [16,17] . The literature also points to the limited effectiveness of current disciplinary committees and the need for proactive, rather than reactive, approaches to prevention. Furthermore, the normalization of corruption and the relatively low penalties for sports-related crimes have been identified as factors that increase the attractiveness of such offenses [18,19].

5.3. Overall Conclusion

This research confirms that organized crime poses a substantial and growing threat to the integrity of international sports. Weak enforcement, fragmented legal responses, and lack of cross-border cooperation facilitate the proliferation of criminal activity. The study’s advanced analytical approach provides empirical support for the development of unified regulatory standards, strengthened whistleblower protections, and the establishment of specialized sports law federations. Such measures are essential for restoring public trust, protecting athletes, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the global sports system. Future policy should prioritize data-driven risk assessment, international collaboration, and continuous education for all stakeholders to effectively combat organized crime in sports.

6. Recommendations

6.1. Practical Recommendations

• Establish independent anti-corruption committees at both ministerial and federation levels to monitor, prevent, and investigate organized crime and corruption in sports. These committees should have clear mandates for enforcement, reporting, and sanctioning.
• Revise and strengthen the statutes of sports federations, especially regarding election processes and management qualifications, to ensure transparency and meritocracy.
• Mandate regular financial reporting and audits for all professional sports clubs and federations, supervised by legal and governmental oversight bodies, to enhance financial transparency and accountability.
• Implement and promote whistleblower systems (e.g., digital reporting platforms) to facilitate the confidential reporting of corruption and crime, and protect informants from retaliation.
• Develop and enforce specialized legal frameworks for criminalizing doping, match-fixing, and illegal betting, including the establishment of dedicated judicial branches for sports crime cases.
• Enhance cooperation with international anti-corruption and law enforcement organizations to share intelligence, best practices, and coordinate cross-border investigations.
• Increase the frequency and effectiveness of anti-doping tests and ethics committee activities within all sports organizations.
• Organize regular educational workshops for athletes, managers, and staff on legal, ethical, and social responsibilities, and the consequences of participating in or ignoring organized crime in sports.

6.2. Recommendations for Future Research

• Conduct longitudinal and comparative studies on the effectiveness of anti-corruption measures across different sports and countries, using advanced statistical and machine learning methods for risk prediction and policy evaluation.
• Investigate the impact of digital transformation (e.g., blockchain, AI-based monitoring) on the detection and prevention of organized crime in sports.
• Explore the role of social and cultural factors in the emergence and persistence of organized crime in sports, particularly in under-researched regions and emerging sports disciplines.
• Assess the psychological and economic motivations of key actors involved in sports crime to design more targeted prevention strategies.
• Examine the effectiveness of international legal cooperation and harmonization of regulations in reducing transnational sports crime.

These recommendations are designed to provide actionable steps for policymakers, sports managers, and researchers, contributing to the creation of a more transparent, accountable, and resilient international sports system.