Submitted:
26 March 2025
Posted:
27 March 2025
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Abstract
The nature of cognition, intelligence, and consciousness has long been a topic of debate across multiple disciplines, often constrained by anthropocentric perspectives. This paper challenges these traditional views by proposing a unifying framework that considers cognition as a broad spectrum encompassing all living organisms, from bacteria to humans. By de-anthropomorphizing the concept of the mind, we explore cognition as an emergent process that manifests through diverse mechanisms, including neural and non-neural systems. We examine the continuum of sentience, intelligence, and awareness across various biological entities, emphasizing their role in adaptive behavior and decision-making. The study further discusses the implications of this framework for artificial intelligence, philosophy, and ethics, highlighting the necessity of precise conceptual definitions. Ultimately, this work aims to refine our understanding of intelligence and cognition, fostering interdisciplinary dialogue and advancing the development of artificial cognitive systems.
Keywords:
cognition
; sentience
; intelligence
; awareness/consciousness
; mind
Introduction
The recent impressive advancements in AI once again bring to the forefront the question of our understanding of intelligence in humans, animals, and artificial systems. It is evident that our current definitions of fundamental terms such as cognition, sentience, intelligence, awareness/consciousness, and mind are insufficient, often leading to confusion and conceptual muddles.
The debate continues: some claim that ChatGPT is already conscious, while others argue that this is impossible, given its lack of the fundamental cognitive architecture that enables human consciousness. Yet, ChatGPT can engage in conversation with humans in an impressively convincing manner. If the Turing test were applied at this stage, it would likely pass as intelligent. But is it conscious? Are animals conscious? What about bacteria?
Apart from a few panpsychists who believe that consciousness permeates the universe, the rest of us struggle with vague and inconsistently defined notions of intelligence.
The aim of this paper is to carefully explore the concepts of cognition, sentience, intelligence, awareness/consciousness, and mind and to present a unifying model applicable to all living beings. Since nature serves as a source of inspiration for technological development, introducing clearer conceptual definitions may foster novel approaches to understanding and advancing artificial intelligence.
Different Kinds of Living Organisms Possess Different Forms of Cognition, Sentience, Intelligence, and Awareness/Consciousness
Cognition, intelligence, and consciousness exist on a continuum, with different life forms displaying distinct abilities shaped by their biology, evolution, and environment (Ginsburg & Jablonka, 2019; Jablonka, Lamb, & Zeligowski, 2014).
Instead of thinking in binary terms (conscious vs. non-conscious, intelligent vs. non-intelligent), we can explore how various organisms display different cognitive traits suited to their ecological roles.
Table 1.
A Spectrum of cognition, intelligence, and awareness across life.
| Type of organism | Type of cognition | Type of intelligence | Type of awareness |
| Bacteria | Distributed, chemical-based cognition (quorum sensing, gene regulation) | Group-level intelligence (colony adaptation) | Minimal awareness—environmental sensing, no subjective experience |
| Fungi | Network-based, electrical signal processing, decentralized information integration | Memory-like responses, decision-making in resource allocation | Proto-awareness—responsive but not experiential |
| Plants | Chemical and electrical signaling, adaptive growth | Environmental intelligence—adjusting structure based on stimuli | Limited awareness—sensitive to light, gravity, and touch but no subjective experience |
| Insects & simple animals | Neural-based cognition, instinct-driven behavior | Learning-based intelligence, simple problem-solving | Primary awareness—moment-to-moment experience, but no reflective thought |
| Cephalopods (octopuses, squids) | Complex, distributed neural cognition | High intelligence, tool use, learning, problem-solving | Likely conscious—flexible, independent decision-making |
| Birds & mammals | Advanced neural cognition, social learning, memory | Social intelligence, problem-solving, tool use, reasoning | Conscious awareness—complex emotions, memory, self-recognition in some |
| Great apes & humans | Abstract thought, symbolic reasoning, long-term planning | Metacognition, cultural learning, language | Self-awareness, imagination, introspection, subjective experience |
Definitions of Cognition, Intelligence, Sentience, Awareness → Consciousness and Mind, for All Living Organisms in a Unified Framework
To create definitions that apply to all life forms, we ensure they are broad enough to include both neural and non-neural organisms, precise enough to differentiate between levels of complexity and grounded in biological processes rather than anthropocentric assumptions.
Cognition
Definition. Cognition is the process by which an organism acquires, transforms, stores, and uses information to regulate its behavior and interactions with the environment.
Cognition exists in all life forms—from bacteria to humans. It includes information processing, sensory input, and response coordination (Dodig-Crnkovic, 2021). It does not require a brain—fungi, plants, and bacteria exhibit cognition through chemical and electrical signaling. For example, bacteria use quorum sensing to make group decisions (Ng & Bassler, 2009; Waters & Bassler, 2005). Fungi transmit electrical signals across their mycelial networks (Adamatzky, 2022; Baluška & Levin, 2016). Animals process sensory input through neural systems.
Sentience
Definition. Sentience is the capacity of an organism to have valenced responses—meaningful experiences of preference for beneficial conditions over harmful ones, that in the first step is valenced response that distinguishes “good” from “bad”.
Sentience reflects a preference toward beneficial states. The organism does not just react but internalize inputs of individual/subjective experience. Sentience ranges from basic (bacteria avoiding toxins and move toward nutrients) (Lyon, 2015); insects exhibit pain-like responses to injury, to complex (e.g. emotions like joy and fear in mammals) (Ginsburg & Jablonka, 2019). Sentience does not require language or self-awareness.
Experiences are not neutral; they are perceived as 'good' or 'bad,' eliciting valenced responses. Sensory-based awareness implies that the organism processes sensory information in a way that affects behavior beyond pure reflexes. All living organisms possess a degree of sentience. A bacteria processes information from the environment (cognition) and valuate it in terms of good/bad or attractive/repulsive. Sentience is complex in organisms with nervous system—but simpler forms exist already in non-neural organisms. All animals are sentient, but only some have self-awareness.
Table 2.
Types of “sentience” across life.
| Life form | Type of valenced response | Type of sentience |
| Bacteria | Chemotaxis (moving toward nutrients, away from toxins) | Minimal sentience (goal-directed behavior) |
| Protists | Learning from negative stimuli, avoidance behavior | Sensory-based sentience (no memory, but adaptive response) |
| Fungi | Memory-like growth preferences, adaptive decision-making | Decentralized valence-based awareness |
| Plants | Growth toward light (positive valence), toxin avoidance | Limited sensory awareness |
| Insects & Simple Animals | Active decision-making based on reinforcement | Basic sentience (experiences pain/pleasure) |
| Birds & Mammals | Complex emotions, social intelligence | Higher-order sentience (affective experiences) |
Intelligence
Definition. Intelligence is the ability of an organism to learn, solve problems, and adapt behavior based on experience or environmental changes.
Intelligence involves learning, problem-solving, and flexible responses. It is expressed on the individual level (octopus learning a task and using tools) (Godfrey-Smith, 2016) and collective level (bacteria in biofilms adapting to antibiotics) (Ben-Jacob, 2008; Ben-Jacob, 2009). Fungi adjust their growth patterns based on past and present nutrient availability (Fukasawa et al., 2024). It does not require a brain—fungi and plants exhibit intelligence through adaptive behavior (Levin, 2023; Ginsburg & Jablonka, 2009). Bees learn and remember complex foraging routes.
Awareness/Consciousness Continuum
Definition. Awareness → consciousness continuum is the ability of an organism to integrate sensory information, maintain a continuous state of responsiveness, and interact with the environment in a structured way.
It ranges from basic environmental awareness to self-awareness and consciousness. It does not require thought or introspection—even bacteria and fungi are "aware" of their surroundings. Awareness exists on a spectrum: simple organisms have sensory awareness, while complex organisms develop complex self-awareness and consciousness.
Bacteria detect chemical gradients and adjust behavior. Fungi sense nearby plants and redirect growth (Money, 2021). Dogs experience emotions and respond to social cues. Humans engage in self-reflection.
Consciousness may is not binary but a continuum, with different levels of complexity in different organisms (Damasio, 2010, 2018, 2021; Koch, 2012).
Mind
Just like cognition, sentience, intelligence, and awareness → consciousness, the term "mind" is currently ill-defined and anthropocentric. If we want definitions that apply to all living organisms, and generalize to machines, we need generalized but precise explanations that allow for different levels of complexity across species.
Definition. Mind is the activity of an organism that processes information, integrates sensory input, regulates internal states, and generates adaptive responses.
The mind is the totality of cognitive, sentient, intelligent, and conscious functions working together.
This definition points out the dynamical and multi-tasking aspects of mind, which includes information processing (like cognition), regulation of behavior and adaptation (like intelligence) and integration of internal and external signals (like awareness).
The key features of a mind are information processing, signal integration, behavior regulation and adaptation (Maturana & Varela, 1980). Mind is not present only in a physical brain—it includes all information-processing mechanisms. It applies to both centralized (brains) and distributed/decentralized (fungal networks) systems. It exists in all living systems as a means they regulate themselves.
A "mind" does not necessarily require reflection or self-awareness—it can be purely functional. Minds exist on a continuum—from decentralized systems (fungi, bacteria) to highly centralized brains (humans, apes). As fungi, plants, and bacteria process information adaptively, they have basal forms of mind, even if they lack subjective experience.
For example, fungal networks process information about nutrients and threats (Adamatzky et al., 2023; Money, 2021). Insect colonies function as "collective minds" that solve problems (Almér, Dodig-Crnkovic, & von Haugwitz, 2015). Human brains engage in complex reasoning and creativity.
All biological organisms consist of cells, so “cellular minds” are the building blocks for all living minds, including human. Living organisms at different levels of complexity possess different forms of cognition and intelligence adapted to their environment. Awareness exists in many forms—from simple environmental sensing to deep introspection. Brains are NOT required for cognition—many living systems process information in distributed ways.
The Unified Model of Biological Minds
Table 3.
Unified model of mind.
| Concept | Definition | Applies to | Key function |
| Cognition | Acquiring, processing, and using information | All living organisms | Guides behavior based on environmental data |
| Sentience | The ability to have valenced responses (seeking beneficial conditions, avoiding harm) | Many organisms, from bacteria to mammals | Enables organisms to optimize survival |
| Intelligence | Learning, problem-solving, and adaptation | Organisms that adjust behavior based on experience | Enhances survival through decision-making |
| Awareness → consciousness | Integration of sensory information for structured responsiveness | All organisms, in different degrees | Maintains interaction with the environment |
| Mind | The system that processes information, integrates sensory input, and regulates internal states | All organisms with organized behavior | Structures perception and decision-making |
A Diversity of Minds
Instead of asking "Which organisms are conscious?" or "Which organisms are intelligent?", the “diverse minds” approach suggests a more nuanced view. Different organisms exhibit different forms of cognition—adapted to their ecological needs. Intelligence emerges in multiple ways—through centralized brains or decentralized networks. Consciousness is a spectrum, without a strict boundary—with varying degrees of “subjective” (individual) experience.
How Cognition, Sentience, Intelligence, Awareness → Consciousness Relate to the Mind
Table 4.
Relations of cognition, intelligence, and awareness across life.
| Concept | Definition | Role in the mind |
| Cognition | Information processing and response to stimuli | Forms the foundation of the mind—allows organisms to perceive and react |
| Sentience | Valenced responses, seeking beneficial conditions, avoiding harm | Adds subjective evaluation to perception |
| Intelligence | Learning, problem-solving, and adaptation | Enhances the mind’s ability to make decisions and adjust to change |
| Awareness → consciousness | Awareness, subjective experience, perception of self | Adds the experiential layer—mind becomes not just functional but "aware" |
| Mind | The total system that integrates cognition, intelligence, and consciousness | The dynamic process that enables organisms to perceive, think, and experience |
Different Life Forms in the Unified Mind Model
Table 5.
Cognition, intelligence, consciousness and mind in different life forms.
| Organism Type | Cognition | Intelligence | Consciousness | Mind |
| Bacteria | quorum sensing | colony adaptation | good/bad (for a bacterium) | minimal regulatory system |
| Fungi | electrical signaling | adaptive memory-like behavior | Proto-consciousness (environmental awareness) | distributed mind |
| Insects | neural processing | learning, navigation | sensory experience | functional but limited mind |
| Cephalopods | complex neural network | problem-solving, tool use | possible self-awareness | highly flexible mind |
| Mammals | advanced neural processing | social learning, reasoning | emotional and sensory awareness | fully conscious, reflective mind |
Even simple life forms have a "mind" if we define it as the system integrating level of cognition, intelligence, and awareness. Evolution leads to higher minds developed with greater intelligence and more complex consciousness (Jablonka et al., 2014).
The Mind as an Emergent Phenomenon
Instead of being a physical object, the mind is an emergent process—it arises when cognition, sentience, intelligence, and consciousness interact in a dynamic, self-regulating way. This means that minds can exist in decentralized systems such as bacteria colonies and fungi (Lyon, 2015; Adamatzky, 2022). Minds can exist without self-awareness as in plants and insects. The complexity of a mind depends on the depth of cognition, intelligence, and consciousness.
Table 6.
Functions of cognition, sentience, intelligence, awareness/consciousness and mind.
| Concept | Definition | Function |
| Cognition | Information processing and response to stimuli | Allows organisms to sense and react |
| Sentience | The ability to valenced responses good/bad | Adds "value"—reactions are not just mechanical but have an evaluative dimension |
| Intelligence | Learning, problem-solving, and adaptation | Allows organisms to adjust behavior based on past experience |
| Awareness → consciousness | Subjective awareness, perception of self | Allows organisms to integrate experience into a unified sense of existence |
| Mind | The emergent system integrating all these processes | The total cognitive-affective system of an organism |
As biological minds exist on a spectrum, we can categorize organisms by the depth of their mind-related capacities.
Table 7.
The properties of mind in different organisms.
| Organism Type | Cognition | Sentience | Intelligence | Consciousness | Mind |
| Bacteria | quorum sensing | valenced behavior | colony adaptation | basic awareness | self-regulating system |
| Fungi | electrical signaling | proto-sentience | adaptive decision-making | environmental awareness & proto-* consciousness | distributed mind |
| Plants | Chemical signaling, memory-like responses | Limited valenced responses | Adaptive growth strategies | Environmental awareness | Decentralized mind |
| Insects | neural processing | experience pain | learning, navigation | sensory experience | functional limited mind |
| Cephalopods | complex neural network | strong sentience emotion-like states | problem-solving, tool use | possible self-awareness | highly flexible mind |
| Mammals | advanced neural processing | Deep sentience (emotions, social bonds) | social learning, reasoning | emotional and sensory awareness | fully conscious, reflective mind |
*“proto” here stands for early, first, from which other similar things develop.
Instead of asking "Which organisms have minds?", a better question is: "What kind of mind does an organism have?" The mind is not an object but a process— an active, embodied, predictive interface between organism and world (Clark, 2016). It exists in different degrees across all life forms.
Conclusion
The exploration of cognition, intelligence, sentience, and consciousness across biological systems shows that the mind is not a binary phenomenon, but a continuum of cognitive processes adapted to different ecological and evolutionary contexts. By moving beyond anthropocentric definitions, we can recognize diverse forms of intelligence and awareness in organisms ranging from bacteria to mammals (Dennett, 2017; Lyon et al., 2021), each exhibiting unique mechanisms of information processing, including decision-making, and adaptive behavior.
This perspective challenges traditional assumptions about mind and what it means to be "intelligent" or "conscious" and has profound implications for multiple disciplines. In biology, it encourages a more nuanced understanding of cognition across species. In artificial intelligence, it inspires new approaches to machine learning and autonomous systems by recognizing intelligence beyond centralized neural structures. In philosophy and ethics, it invites reconsideration of considerations for non-human life forms based on their capacity for experience and adaptation.
Future research should focus on empirically testing the proposed unified model of cognition and intelligence in both biological and artificial systems. By refining our definitions and methodologies, we can develop a more comprehensive framework that not only enhances our understanding of natural intelligence but also informs the design of future intelligent technologies.
Ultimately, de-anthropomorphizing the mind allows for a richer, more inclusive approach to studying cognition—one that respects the complexity and diversity of minds across the natural world.
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