Shifting Herbal Knowledge: The Ecology and Culture Behind Wild Plant Use in the Southern Occitan Alps

1. Introduction

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is vital for local communities and their well-being. TEK has been a focal point of research within the ethnobiological field, and recent developments have witnessed a shift towards a diachronic approach that emphasizes the historical evolution of these corpora of knowledge [1]. The Alpine Southern Occitan area, nestled between the western Alps and the borderlands of Italy and France, represents a unique convergence of cultural and ecological characteristics [2]. Known for its breathtaking landscapes, this region is defined by a rich history of localized agricultural practices, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), and close-knit communities that have adapted to the region’s challenging environment [3,4,5]. At altitudes ranging from 600 to 3,000 meters, the area is characterized by a distinct climate marked by moderate to cold temperatures and significant seasonal variation in precipitation [2,6]. This ecological diversity has shaped a wealth of botanical knowledge passed down through generations, contributing to the local identity of the region’s inhabitants. Over the years, however, this knowledge has been increasingly threatened by various factors, including socio-economic shifts, migration, changing environmental conditions, and land use alterations. These influences collectively contribute to the erosion or transformation of TEK, making it essential to examine the broader context of these changes in understanding the region’s ecological knowledge dynamics [7,8].

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) refers to the body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs about the relationship of living beings (humans, animals, and plants) with their environment [9]. This knowledge system was once integral to daily life in the Alpine Southern Occitan area, influencing everything from agricultural practices to health, spirituality, and social organization [10].However, the erosion of TEK has become a critical issue as the region faces a phenomenon known as the "Hysteresis Effect" the idea that once knowledge systems are lost, they may be difficult or impossible to recover, even when conditions for its re-establishment return [11]. This effect is compounded by the social and economic transformations the region has experienced in recent decades, which have led to the displacement or disappearance of key cultural practices and the disintegration of long-standing knowledge systems [12,13].

Several factors influence the persistence or decline of TEK in this region, and these factors are often interconnected. Climate change, particularly shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns, plays a pivotal role in altering plant ecosystems, which in turn influences the knowledge that local communities maintain about these plants [9,14]. Increases in average temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and the unpredictability of seasonal weather can directly affect the availability of plant species that were once integral to the region’s agricultural and medicinal practices[7,15]. This, in combination with altitude, may further exacerbate the decline or transformation of plant-based knowledge. Higher altitudes experience more pronounced changes in climate, with species adapted to specific temperature and moisture conditions potentially becoming rarer or migrating, altering the local flora and the knowledge tied to it [6,16,17].

In addition to environmental factors, land use changes and the reduction of agricultural activity have contributed significantly to the erosion of traditional knowledge [18]. Over the decades, farming practices have been reduced or altered due to economic pressures, population decline, and the mechanization of agriculture, leading to a shift in how people interact with the land. This shift also has implications for the cultivated or harvested plants, which are no longer as deeply integrated into daily life. As land abandonment increases, particularly in high-altitude areas once used for traditional agro-pastoralism, the continuity of TEK is disrupted [19]. A recent study has documented that temporal shifts in plant usage have occurred in neighbouring Alpine Ubaye and Bellino Valleys [20]. The study suggests that this shift reflects broader cultural, ecological, and socio-economic changes, underscoring the importance of preserving biodiversity and traditional knowledge amidst ongoing environmental and societal shifts.

Cultural Factors such as modernization, changes in economic levels, and the effects of migration also shape the way knowledge is passed down. As younger generations leave for urban centers in search of better education and job opportunities, the transmission of traditional knowledge becomes less consistent [21]. The influx of new residents, including migrants, seasonal workers, and tourists, further complicates the local knowledge landscape, introducing new plant knowledge, practices, and cultural exchanges, but also contributing to the dilution of TEK held by long-established inhabitants.

Notably, few studies have addressed the risk factors influencing the decline or transformation of ethnobotanical knowledge over extended periods. While some global studies are tracking these changes, very few have examined the long-term effects (over 50 years) on ethnobotanical taxa in such detail.

These studies are critical, as they provide insight into the resilience of traditional plant knowledge systems and the broader ecological and cultural shifts that affect them. These rare longitudinal studies highlight how risk factors such as climate change, land use modifications, migration, and socio-economic transitions can significantly alter the presence, utilization, and transmission of local plant knowledge across generations.

This study aims to explore the interrelation between the loss of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and the emergence of new forms of ecological and cultural knowledge over time in the Alpine Southern Occitan area. By examining historical and contemporary data on local plant knowledge, this research seeks to understand the mechanisms through which knowledge is lost, adapted, or revitalized. Through a multi-generational lens, the study will assess how changing economic, social, and environmental conditions influence knowledge systems and how communities negotiate their relationship with their natural environment.

2. Results

2.1. Wild Plants Across the Southern Occitan Alps

In the studies analyzed, a total of 308 botanical taxa were identified in the study area ( Maria , Grana, and Stura valleys), 112 in the Rovera (1982) study [22], 90 in Musset and Dore (2004) [23], 86 and 20 in our collected data in 2011 and 2022, respectively. These recent collected data reveal different trends in plant family usage, with 50 families identified in Rovera et al., 1982[22] 38 in Musset and Dore, 2004 [23], 43 and 15 in our collected data in 2011 and 2022, respectively.

Table 1 presents the usage of plant parts across four studies Rovera et al. (1982), Musset and Dore (2004), unpublished data of our research group collected in 2011 and 2022 highlighting the temporal shifts in botanical taxa and family utilization. The most prominent families identified in Rovera (1982) include Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae, Violaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Urticaceae. Musset and Dore (2004) follow a similar pattern with the frequent appearance of Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae, Pinaceae, Fabaceae, and Polygonaceae. Our collected data in 2011, highlight families such as Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Brassicaceae, Liliaceae, Apiaceae, Campanulaceae, and Rosaceae. On the other hand, our collected data in 2022 narrows significantly, with only Asteraceae and Lamiaceae remaining as the most prominent families.

This shift reflects the changing ecological and cultural roles of plants over time. Families such as Asteraceae and Lamiaceae have maintained a continuous presence across all studies, but with notable decline, particularly in the more recent data. For instance, Asteraceae was cited with 17 species in 1982 and 14 in 2004, but only 3 species were recorded by 2022. Similarly, Lamiaceae decreased from 12 species in 1982 to just 2 species in the latest Data .

Conversely, certain families such as Brassicaceae and Amaranthaceae emerge with increasing frequency in the later studies, indicating a shift in plant use, potentially driven by socio-economic factors such as migration and urbanization. The category of "Others," encompassing less frequently cited families, has also sharply declined from 48 species in 1982 to just 3 in 2022 indicating a narrowing of plant diversity within local knowledge systems (Figure 1).

The results presented in Figure 2 demonstrate significant variation in the documented plant species across different temporal contexts, reflecting changes in both the number and frequency of ethnobotanical knowledge over time. Earlier studies, such as Rovera (1982) and Musset and Dore (2004), record a wide range of species, with Rovera alone documenting 51 species and Musset and Dore contributing 34. These studies highlight frequently cited plants such as Achillea millefolium , Artemisia absinthium., and Calendula officinalis, which represent long-standing staples of traditional practices.

In contrast, more recent collected data , such as (2022) and (2011), report fewer species, with 2022 data listing only 3 species and data (2011) documenting 44. Notable among the recent additions are Allium ursinum and Silybum marianum, which appear with increasing frequency, suggesting their growing prominence due to changing ecological or cultural factors. However, despite this overall reduction in diversity, some species, such as Pimpinella anisum and Sambucus nigra, persist across all four studies, reflecting their sustained importance in ethnobotanical traditions.

Frequency analysis reveals that some species, like Pimpinella anisum., appear in up to 11 combinations of studies, demonstrating their widespread and enduring utility. Others, like Melissa officinalis, are mentioned in only 1 combination, highlighting their more specialized or localized relevance. This fluctuation in frequency underscores the dynamic nature of ethnobotanical knowledge, where cultural preferences, environmental changes, and practical needs shape the prominence of certain species over time.

2.2. Shifts in Traditional Plant Knowledge, Usage, and Biodiversity Across Data Sites in the Southern Occitan Alps

The results of the Data revealed notable shifts in plant utilization over time. In Rovera's (1982) Data , the majority of plant parts used were medicinal (88.1%), with fruits (8.9%) and flowers (3.0%) being utilized less frequently. This indicates a primary focus on medicinal applications during this period. By contrast, Musset and Dore (2004) showed a more balanced distribution, with 42.0% of plant parts used for medicinal purposes, 37.5% for fruits, and 20.5% for flowers. This shift suggests a growing emphasis on fruits and flowers alongside medicinal uses. Our collected data in (2011) marks a return to a medicinal-centric approach, with 74.4% of plant parts used for medicinal purposes, and fruits and flowers representing smaller proportions (16.7% and 9.0%, respectively). Finally, our data (2022) highlights a significant increase in the use of fruits, which accounted for 50.0% of the plant parts, followed by medicinal use (42.9%) and flowers (7.1%). This recent trend points to a shift towards greater utilization of fruits, likely reflecting changes in cultural practices or available plant resources. These temporal shifts in plant part usage underscore the evolving roles of plant species, influenced by ecological, cultural, and socio-economic factors over the decades.

Overall, these findings indicate a notable shift in plant part usage over time. While past studies, particularly from Rovera (1982), focused heavily on medicinal species, more recent data, especially the data (2011) and collected data in (2022), show an increasing trend in the use of plants for fodder and food purposes. This shift may reflect changing agricultural practices, environmental conditions, and evolving cultural preferences in the use of plant species. The overall trend suggests that, while medicinal uses remain important, there has been a marked increase in the functional diversity of plants, particularly in terms of their role in animal husbandry and food resources. This shift is indicative of broader changes in socio-economic and ecological contexts over the years.

The reason for the medicinal plant decrease is twofold: a. Medicinal plants were especially needed and used in times in which public health care was less capillary (see the high number of wild medicinal taxa in Data published in 1982); b. medicinal species were collected in ecological areas insisting in spread and robust forestry and shepherding activities; these activities have basically disappeared nowadays.

The opposite trend of wild food plants collection could be instead explicable with the huge interest that in the past two decades foraging has (re-)gained in the Data area and in all Northern Italy, possibly bringing also new food plant-centred practices.

Figure 4. (A)The interconnectedness of plant studies and the overlap in plant parts examined across different studies, (B) The chord diagram confirms the dynamic interplay between all the studies over time.

Figure 4. (A)The interconnectedness of plant studies and the overlap in plant parts examined across different studies, (B) The chord diagram confirms the dynamic interplay between all the studies over time.

Figure 5. The chord diagram between all the usage and used parts in each data over time (A) Rovera (1982), (B) Musset and Dore (2004), (C) our collected data (2011), and (D) data (2022).

Figure 5. The chord diagram between all the usage and used parts in each data over time (A) Rovera (1982), (B) Musset and Dore (2004), (C) our collected data (2011), and (D) data (2022).

The network diagram reveals that the collected data in 2022 Data shares plant parts with Musset and Dore 2004, Rovera 1982, and data 2011. Similarly, Musset and Dore 2004 and Rovera 1982 also share plant parts with our collected data in 2011. This interconnectedness suggests potential connection based on the same region area and mountain community among these studies, especially the same ecosystems and per consequence that will confirm their variation based on risk factors. The chord diagram confirms the dynamic interplay between the studies over time, despite their focus on the same region and valleys.

Earlier studies, such as Rovera et al., (1982), may have prioritized more traditional plant uses, focusing on parts like Bark and Flowers. In contrast, more recent studies, like our collected datr in 2022 and 2011, seem to explore a broader range of plant parts, potentially reflecting evolving research interests and methodologies.

Understanding these shifts and overlaps is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of plant use and ecology in the region. The chord diagrams provide a visual representation of the overlap in plant parts used for medicinal and food purposes across different studies. The thickness of the ribbons connecting the plant parts indicates the extent of overlap. For instance, the significant overlap between "Bark" and "Leaves" in both diagrams suggests that these plant parts are commonly used for both medicinal and food purposes. This finding aligns with traditional knowledge systems where various plant parts are utilized for diverse applications. Similarly, the overlap between "Flowers" and "Fruit" indicates that these reproductive plant parts are often used in both culinary and medicinal practices. This overlap could be attributed to their potential medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory or antioxidant effects.

On the other hand, plant parts like "Wood" and "Roots" show less overlap with other categories, suggesting a more specialized use in either medicine or food. This could be due to their structural properties or specific chemical compounds that limit their versatility.

When analyzing the data separately and connecting it with the tier conditions, the different aspects of the interconnection between the plant parts and their uses become more apparent.

Diagram A, representing Rovera et al., (1982), reveals a more pronounced overlap between "Bark" and "Leaves," indicating a strong association of these plant parts with both medicinal and food applications. Additionally, the overlap between "Flowers" and "Fruit" is significant, suggesting their versatile use in various cultural practices.

Diagram B, which corresponds to Musset and Dore (2004), shows a more balanced distribution of overlap across different plant parts. While "Flowers" and "Bark" still exhibit a notable overlap, other plant parts like "Leaves" and "Fruit" show a more moderate level of overlap. This implies a potentially wider range of plant parts used for both medicinal and food purposes in the context represented by this Data . The Chord Diagram C, based on our collected data (2011), further highlights the overlap between medicinal and food uses of different plant parts. It illustrates a diverse range of plant parts utilized for various purposes, showing how cultural practices have expanded the number of plant parts used for different applications.

Finally, Chord Diagram D, representing our collected data (2022), offers insights into the continued use and overlap of plant parts, with some newer trends emerging in the overlap patterns. Like Diagram C, it reflects a broad utilization of plant parts but with some shift in preferences based on more recent ecological or cultural influences. Each diagram illustrates the evolving relationship between plant parts and their medicinal and food uses, emphasizing the dynamic and interconnected nature of ethnobotanical knowledge across different time periods.

2.3. Patterns, Similarities, and Knowledge Dynamics: A Comparative Analysis Through Heatmaps, Dendrograms, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Notable clusters include families such as Apiaceae and Asteraceae, which exhibit significant overlap, while families like Liliaceae and Rubiaceae appear more distinct with lower similarity, as indicated by darker hues (Figure 6). Figure 6 emphasizes compositional relationships and biodiversity patterns, providing insights into ecological associations and the distinctiveness of certain plant families. The diagonal symmetry confirms the consistency of the Jaccard Index in reflecting these relationships.

The dendrograms on the sides of the heatmap represent the hierarchical clustering of the data sets. Similar data sets are grouped, forming clusters. The height of the branches in the dendrogram reflects the similarity between the clusters.

Overall, the heatmap provides a visual representation of the relationships between the data sets, allowing you to identify groups of similar data sets and understand the patterns of similarity and dissimilarity.

The dendrogram (Figure 7) illustrates the hierarchical clustering of four studies, revealing distinct patterns of similarity and dissimilarity. Data A (Rovera et al., 1982) emerges as the most unique, forming an independent cluster. Data B (Musset and Dore 2004) shares some similarities with A but also exhibits distinct characteristics, placing it in a separate cluster. In contrast, Studies C (Data 2011) and D (Data 2022) demonstrate a high degree of similarity, forming a closely related cluster. This suggests that the latter two studies' data may share common botanical taxa focus or families and ecosystem factors, differentiating them from the earlier studies and that was confirmed by the PCA analysis.

Figure 7. A dendrogram is a tree-like diagram used to visualize hierarchical relationships between data studies labeled (A) Rovera et al., (1982), (B) Musset and Dore (2004), (C)Our data (2011), and (D) Our data (2022).

Figure 7. A dendrogram is a tree-like diagram used to visualize hierarchical relationships between data studies labeled (A) Rovera et al., (1982), (B) Musset and Dore (2004), (C)Our data (2011), and (D) Our data (2022).

Figure 8. The biplot visualizes the relationships between the four studies based on their contribution to the principal components. The studies can be clustered into two groups: Cluster 1 comprising Rovera 1982 and Musset and Dore 2004, and Cluster 2 including Data Data 2011 and Stellato 2022.

Figure 8. The biplot visualizes the relationships between the four studies based on their contribution to the principal components. The studies can be clustered into two groups: Cluster 1 comprising Rovera 1982 and Musset and Dore 2004, and Cluster 2 including Data Data 2011 and Stellato 2022.

The first principal component (PC1) separates these clusters, indicating that it captures the primary source of variation between the studies. Rovera etal., (1982) and Musset and Dore (2004) exhibit similar patterns of variation, In contrast, our collected data 2011 and 2022 demonstrate distinct patterns.

The length of the arrows in the biplot represents the contribution of each Data to the principal components. Rovera et al., (1982) has a greater influence on the overall variation in the data. By analyzing the biplot, we can gain insights into the similarities and differences between the studies and identify potential trends or patterns in their research.

2.4. Factors Influencing Botanical Diversity: Insights from Logistic Regression Analysis

To understand and complete our version of the results a logistic model was developed.

Table 2. The logistic regression model was used to analyze the influence of various explanatory variables on the number of botanical taxa observed in different conditions.

Explanatory Variables	Category	Coefficients	Odds Ratios	Std. Error	P-value
Altitude (m)	600-1600	0.8	2.22	0.3	0.002
	1600-2400	0.45	1.57	0.25	0.048
	2400–3031	0.1	1.11	0.32	0.724
Temperature Average (°C)	5 to 12°C	0.3	1.35	0.28	0.223
	7 to 13°C	-0.1	0.9	0.27	0.74
Precipitation Average (mm)	1400-1600	-0.2	0.82	0.31	0.511
	1200-1400	-0.5	0.61	0.35	0.151
Age Range (years)	71-75	0.85	2.34	0.3	0.004
	30-80	0.15	1.16	0.22	0.441
Data Source	Interviews	0.6	1.82	0.35	0.09
	Herbarium	0.25	1.28	0.4	0.517

Table 2. The logistic regression model was used to analyze the influence of various explanatory variables on the number of botanical taxa observed in different conditions.

Explanatory Variables	Category	Coefficients	Odds Ratios	Std. Error	P-value
Altitude (m)	600-1600	0.8	2.22	0.3	0.002
	1600-2400	0.45	1.57	0.25	0.048
	2400–3031	0.1	1.11	0.32	0.724
Temperature Average (°C)	5 to 12°C	0.3	1.35	0.28	0.223
	7 to 13°C	-0.1	0.9	0.27	0.74
Precipitation Average (mm)	1400-1600	-0.2	0.82	0.31	0.511
	1200-1400	-0.5	0.61	0.35	0.151
Age Range (years)	71-75	0.85	2.34	0.3	0.004
	30-80	0.15	1.16	0.22	0.441
Data Source	Interviews	0.6	1.82	0.35	0.09
	Herbarium	0.25	1.28	0.4	0.517

The results revealed that altitude was a significant predictor, with the 600-1600 m range showing the strongest effect (odds ratio = 2.22, p = 0.002). This supports the findings of Rovera et al., (1982), where the highest number of taxa (112) was observed under similar altitude conditions. The temperature categories (5 to 12°C and 7 to 13°C) did not show a significant influence on botanical diversity, with P-values above 0.05, suggesting that temperature may have a weaker effect than altitude in shaping plant diversity. Precipitation was also not a significant factor, with P-values of 0.511 and 0.151 for the 1400-1600 mm and 1200-1400 mm categories, respectively. The age range of participants showed a significant effect, with individuals in the 71-75 years category reporting a higher number of botanical taxa (odds ratio = 2.34, p = 0.004), indicating that older participants may possess more knowledge about the local flora. Finally, data sources showed a marginal effect, with interviews being slightly more informative (odds ratio = 1.82, p = 0.090) compared to herbarium data, although this result was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. These findings underscore the importance of altitude and age in understanding the diversity of botanical taxa, while also highlighting the relative influence of direct interviews over other data sources in capturing plant diversity.

3. Discussion

3.1. Resilience and Change Wild Plants in the Southern Occitan Alps

The analysis of ethnobotanical data from the Alpine Southern Occitan area reveals a notable reduction in plant species diversity over the past few decades. When comparing the four studies spanning from 1982 to 2022, it is evident that the number of documented taxa has decreased significantly. While the Rovera et al., (1982) and Musset and Dore (2004) studies cataloged a wide variety of species, including many medicinal plants such as Achillea millefolium and Artemisia absinthium, the later studies (particularly our collected data in 2022) show a marked decline in the number of species reported.

As noted, there has been a dramatic decrease in the number of wild herbs actively used in the region. Herbs such as Achillea, Artemisia, Veronica, and Viola species, which were once key components of local diets and medicinal practices, have seen their usage diminish significantly. These species are now considered uncommon, and in many cases, are no longer present in the local herbal market. This decline can be linked to the diminishing number of people who still engage with the natural environment daily [24,25]. The role of these herbs, which once had medicinal and culinary applications, is now largely forgotten or relegated to anecdotal references in older generations. The shift away from traditional ecological practices has led to the loss of a deep knowledge base surrounding these plants, which had once been part of the fabric of daily life [10,16].

Another significant trend revealed by the results is the changing emphasis on different plant parts over time. The earlier studies, such as [22] Rovera et al., (1982), show a strong emphasis on the medicinal uses of plants, with flowers, leaves, and roots being the most commonly used parts. However, in more recent collected data, such as data 2011 and (2022), the focus has shifted towards food-related uses, particularly fruits. This shift reflects changing dietary patterns in the region, where wild food sources have become more central to local consumption [26,27]. The increased use of fruits, such as those from Rubus and Malus species, mirrors broader trends in the local food culture, likely influenced by shifts in agriculture, food security concerns, and a growing preference for locally sourced, seasonal foods [28,29]. This change is especially notable in our collected data in (2022), where fruits comprise 50% of plant part usage. This suggests that while medicinal plant use declines, plant species that contribute to food security and nutritional needs are becoming more significant in the cultural practices of the region.

3.2. Ecological and Socio-Economic Drivers of Plant Knowledge and Diversity

The role of ecological factors in shaping plant knowledge and diversity was also explored. One key finding is the strong relationship between altitude and plant diversity. The studies consistently show that higher altitudes are associated with greater plant diversity, particularly for medicinal and food-related species. This result aligns with Rovera’s (1982) findings, which reported the highest diversity of plants at altitudes between 600 and 1600 masl. The environmental conditions of these higher altitudes likely foster a wider range of plant species, providing diverse resources for the local population [30]. Interestingly, the analysis revealed no significant correlation between plant diversity and temperature or precipitation categories, suggesting that altitude is a more significant factor in shaping plant diversity than climate alone [31]. This finding emphasizes the unique ecological conditions of the Alpine Southern Occitan region, where altitude appears to be a key determinant of both plant diversity and the extent of traditional plant knowledge.

The socio-economic changes in the region have played a major role in altering plant use patterns. The decrease in medicinal plant knowledge can be seen as part of a broader trend toward modernization and the decline of traditional farming and foraging practices [32]. The younger generations in the region are less likely to engage in traditional agricultural practices and are more reliant on commercial food systems, which has contributed to the shift away from wild plant usage [18,30]. The increased use of certain plant families, such as Brassicaceae and Amaranthaceae, suggests that external factors, including changes in food security and agricultural practices, have influenced plant selection. These shifts could also reflect global food trends or the introduction of new crops that have displaced older, more traditional plants [33]. The reduction in the use of some plant families, such as Asteraceae, further points to the impact of external agricultural policies, migration, and urbanization on local plant knowledge systems [34].

Despite this decline, there remains an opportunity to revitalize the use of these herbs, particularly in innovative food and beverage sectors. The use of wild herbs such as Achillea (Yarrow), Artemisia (Wormwood), Veronica (Speedwell), and Viola (Violet) could play a significant role in the development of novel food products. These herbs, which are not yet widely available on the herbal market, hold untapped potential for sustainable, innovative food and beverage applications [35,36]. They could be incorporated into health-conscious, eco-friendly products that align with current trends towards natural and local ingredients. Exploring the culinary and medicinal potential of these plants could reinvigorate interest in traditional plant knowledge, offering both ecological and economic benefits by reintroducing these species into contemporary markets [37].

The revival of interest in these plants could also help bridge the knowledge gap created by the loss of TEK. By integrating these herbs into modern products, there is an opportunity to reconnect people with their environmental heritage, fostering a renewed relationship with local plants [24,38]. This process could help combat the Hysteresis Effect by reintegrating forgotten knowledge into the cultural landscape, even in the absence of daily engagement with nature. These plants, once critical to rural livelihoods, could once again play a role in the ecological and cultural revitalization of the region.

The findings from this Data provide valuable insights into the changing relationship between local communities and their plant resources. As plant knowledge continues to decline, there is an urgent need for efforts to preserve traditional ecological knowledge, especially through community-based initiatives. Future research should focus on revitalizing plant knowledge by engaging local communities in documentation and education programs that emphasize the importance of wild plants for both cultural and ecological sustainability. Longitudinal studies that explore the relationship between socio-economic shifts, environmental changes, and plant knowledge would be valuable in further understanding the factors contributing to the erosion of TEK. Furthermore, research that includes a broader range of ecological zones and socio-economic contexts could provide a more comprehensive view of the forces driving these shifts across the region.

3.3. Limitations of the Data

This Data is limited by several factors. First, the geographical scope is focused on specific mountain areas, which may not fully represent the diversity of plant knowledge in other regions. The historical context of plant use is also challenging, as the decline of traditional practices over decades may have led to gaps in knowledge. Additionally, participant memory and subjective interpretations of plant usage could influence the accuracy of the data. The Data does not extensively explore other factors, such as environmental changes or agricultural practices, that might affect herb use. Finally, cultural shifts and the adoption of modern alternatives may have influenced the decline in traditional plant knowledge. Future research should address these limitations by broadening the scope, including younger generations, and exploring additional ecological and socio-economic factors.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Data Area

The Alpine Southern Occitan Area (Maria, Stura, and Grana valleys), nestled between the western Alps and the borderlands of Italy and France (Figure 9), is a region steeped in a rich history of both ecological and cultural significance [39]. This area has long been home to communities that have developed unique agricultural and medicinal practices suited to the challenging alpine environment. At altitudes ranging from 600 to 3000 meters, the region is defined by a distinct climate, marked by moderate to cold temperatures and significant seasonal variations in precipitation, creating a diverse range of ecological zones [10]. These varying altitudes have resulted in an exceptional variety of plant species, many of which are deeply embedded in the traditional practices of the local communities. The history of the region is characterized by a longstanding reliance on farming, pastoralism, and local plant knowledge, which has shaped both the cultural and ecological landscapes. Over time, these communities have developed intricate systems of ecological knowledge that integrate plant use with the broader cultural and spiritual practices of the region.

The region’s people, traditionally organized in small, close-knit communities, have a strong sense of identity rooted in the land they cultivate and the ecological resources they manage. This connection to the land is reflected in the way traditional knowledge has been passed down through generations, often through familial lines and communal teachings. The transmission of knowledge was primarily oral, with elders passing down plant-based wisdom related to medicinal, culinary, and agricultural practices. This knowledge was not only practical but deeply tied to local cosmologies and worldviews, which held a spiritual and ethical connection to nature [10,40]. For instance, certain plants were considered sacred, and their use was governed by strict cultural protocols that ensured sustainable harvesting and respect for the natural world. However, the interplay between ecological conditions, such as the region’s altitude and climate, and cultural practices has been increasingly disrupted by socio-economic shifts. The pressures of modernization, economic changes, and out-migration have altered the way younger generations relate to traditional practices, with many abandoning them in favor of urban life and more standardized agricultural techniques.

4.2. Fieldwork and Data Collection

For this comparative Data , the fieldwork spans several decades, from 1982 to 2022, and includes both historical and contemporary data on local plant knowledge. The data collection process has involved interviewing individuals from a range of professions, including farmers, restaurateurs, and workers in the tourism industry (Table 3). These interviews have captured the changing dynamics of plant use and ecological knowledge, shedding light on how the local plant knowledge system has evolved in response to broader socio-economic and environmental shifts.

In addition to interviews, field observations have been conducted to record plant species in the wild, with an emphasis on how climate change and land use alterations have impacted plant distribution and abundance at different altitudes (Figure 10) will give a view on this altitude and the natural landscape. These observations allow for an in-depth understanding of how ecological changes, such as shifts in temperature or precipitation patterns, influence local plant knowledge and practices. Moreover, the influx of migrants into the region has brought new plant knowledge and altered traditional practices, further complicating the region’s ethnobotanical landscape. Plant specimens had been collected, identified, and deposited in a recognized herbarium during previous ethnobotanical fieldwork conducted by some of the authors in the contiguous areas of the Western Alps [10,40]. Verbal consent was always obtained from the Data participants, following the Code of Ethics of the Interantioanl Society of Ethnobiology [41].

4.3. Data Analysis

The analysis of the collected data will be conducted using both SAS 9.4 and R v4.4.2 to explore the relationships between ecological and cultural factors influencing plant knowledge and its transmission. Statistical techniques such as PCA (Principal Component Analysis) will be used to reduce the complexity of the data and identify key ecological and cultural variables that explain variations in plant knowledge across the region. Cluster analysis will also be employed to group plant species based on their cultural and ecological significance, revealing patterns in how these species are used and shared among different communities. In addition, Redundancy Analysis (RDA) will be utilized to examine the relationship between ecological factors such as temperature, precipitation, altitude, and plant species distribution. This will allow the Data to assess how environmental conditions influence the preservation or loss of traditional plant knowledge.

Furthermore, A logistic regression model was applied to assess the relationship between botanical taxa presence and various ecological and socio-economic factors. The explanatory variables included altitude, temperature, precipitation, age range, and data source. The botanical taxa data were treated as a binary outcome, indicating the presence or absence of species in different environmental conditions. The model results suggest that age range and altitude are significant predictors of botanical taxa presence.

The general form of the logistic regression model is:

$$Logit\left(p\right)=lnln\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{1-P}}\right)=\beta 0+\sum _{i=1}^{n}1\beta iXi$$

Where:

• p is the probability of the event occurring (e.g., presence of a botanical taxa).
• β0 ​ is the intercept (constant term).
• βi are the coefficients for each explanatory variable.
• Xi​ are the explanatory variables (altitude, temperature, precipitation, age range, and data source).

Based on our variables the model equation can be written as:

Logit(p)=β0+β1xAltitude1+β2xAltitude2+β3xAltitude3+β4xTemperature1+β5xTemperature2+β6xPrecipitation1+β7xPrecipitation2+β8xAge1+β9xAge2+β10xData Source1+β11xData Source2

Where:

• Altitude1, Altitude2, and Altitude are the dummy variables for the three levels of Altitude (600-1,600m, 1600-2,400m, and 2,400–3,031m).
• Temperature1 and Temperature are the dummy variables for the two levels of Temperature Average (5 to 12°C and 7 to 13°C).
• Precipitation 1 and Precipitation 2 are the dummy variables for the two levels of Precipitation Average (1400-1600mm and 1200-1400mm).
• Age1and Age2 are the dummy variables for the two levels of Age Range (71-75 years and 30-80 years).
• Data Source has two levels: Interviews and Herbarium. Substituting the Coefficients

These analyses will help reveal how both ecological changes and cultural transformations contribute to the erosion or revitalization of TEK in the region.

The collected data will also be examined through frequency analysis to track patterns in plant species use across different altitudinal zones and over time, highlighting how knowledge is retained, lost, or adapted in response to changing circumstances. Additionally, Venn diagrams will be used to represent the overlap between plant species used in various cultural contexts and ecological zones, offering a visual representation of shared or distinct knowledge systems.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, the dramatic decline in the use of wild herbs in the Alpine Southern Occitan region highlights the broader loss of traditional ecological knowledge due to the disappearance of daily engagement with nature. The application of the Hysteresis Effect theory underscores the difficulty of reversing this trend once it has set in, but also points to potential pathways for recovery, particularly through the innovative use of rare plants like Achillea, Artemisia, Veronica, and Viola. While the plants remain in the landscape, their cultural and practical significance has waned, but by reintroducing them into modern food and beverage markets, we may be able to revive interest and knowledge, creating a more sustainable and culturally aware future.