Understanding the Interaction Between Land, Atmosphere and Ocean Towards Intensifying the Extreme Weather Events

1. Introduction

It is well documented that the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are increasing due to global climate change (Zwiers et al., 2013; Nayak, 2018, Tyagi et al., 2022; Clarke et al., 2022; Sahu et al., 2023; Sayat et al., 2024). These events include extreme heat waves, tropical cyclones, snowfall, floods, thunderstorms, tornados, and other types of natural disasters, which have a severe impact on human life, the environment, and economic activities (Chaudhary and Piracha 2021; Rajkovich et al., 2024; Koteshwaramma et al., 2024). In order to understand the impact of these phenomena, many studies so far are conducted to understand their formations and possible causes at local or large scale (Walsh et al., 2020; Meinandar et al., 2021; Nayak et al., 2023). In a study, Script et al., (2022) documented the physical processes and feedback mechanisms between the land, atmosphere, and oceans. Bindhajam et al., (2020) analyzed soil moisture, land surface temperature, and vegetation cover influencing atmospheric conditions. Sahu et al., (2022) documented on how the ocean temperature and currents affect atmospheric circulation patterns (e.g., El Niño, tropical cyclones). Similarly, a number of studies discussed how land use changes (e.g., deforestation) and ocean surface temperatures contribute to weather extremes (Nayak and Mandal, 2012, Sahu et al., 2023).

These studies infers that the interaction between the land, ocean, and atmospheric systems leads to intensified extreme weather events such as heatwaves (influenced by land surface temperatures (Maity et al., 2021, Nayak et al., 2022, 2023)), tropical cyclones (influenced by ocean temperatures and atmospheric pressure (Singh et al., 2023; Nayak and Takemi, 2023), flooding (affected by precipitation, sea level rise, and storm surge (Nayak and Takemi, 2020; Singh et al., 2022), droughts (affected by land moisture and atmospheric circulation (Lhotka et al., 2020; Qing et al., 2023)). However, the interaction between land, atmosphere and ocean towards intensifying such extremes are not well documents, as these three elements are closely related to each other and the interactions between them ultimately result in the intensity and pattern of weather (Dabral et al., 2023; Sahu et al., 2025).

In this study, we explore the interaction between land, atmosphere and ocean and understand how they affect the intensity of extreme weather events such as cold waves, storms, floods and heat waves from the important parameters such as temperature, precipitation, wind speed, local pressure, sea level pressure, relative humidity, and dew point temperature (Nayak et al., 2021).

2. Methodology

In this study, we analyze various climatic parameters from Radar-Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System (Radar-AMeDAS) data to understand the interrelationship of land, atmosphere and ocean, which intensify the extreme weather events. The analysis is based on three months of climate data from January to March. All the available climatic variables are considered in this study which includes temperature, precipitation, wind speed, solar radiation, local pressure, sea level pressure, relative humidity, vapor pressure, dew point temperature, cloud cover and visibility (https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/index.html) We analyze various relationships between the variables to understand their interaction and impact on extremes. As the present data deal with winter time, so we focus on cold waves that is, how any relationship can combine to produce cold waves, and how other relationship to make it stormy.

3. Results

In this section, we explore the interrelationship between the major weather variables with a focus with multiple variables on different scales simultaneously to understand the complex interactions that drive extreme weather events like cyclones, heatwaves, and floods.

3.1. Temperature over Time with Extreme Cold Temperature Threshold

Figure 1 shows the temperature over time with a focus on identifying periods of extreme cold. It shows that few extreme cold events (the dotted line marks 0°C cold threshold) exists and after a few hours of time the relative humidity increases. This causes frost formation and develops cold-related phenomena, indicating times when the temperature drops to extreme cold levels could lead to frost or cold waves.

3.2. Wind Speed Versus Local Pressure

Figure 2 depicts the wind speed and local pressure over time. It shows the potential relationships between the wind and pressure that are linked to cyclonic or storm activities. We find that wind speed tends to increase when local pressure drops, indicating a good correlation between the pressure variations with wind intensification. Many several studies (Nayak et al., 2018, Saini et al., 2020; 2023) have identified this characteristic during storm days.

3.3. Precipitation Versus Relative Humidity

The relationship between precipitation and relative humidity are shown in Figure 3. We find that the amount of precipitation is higher when the humidity is higher. This condition favors to cause heavy precipitation and potential flooding (Sahu et al., 2020; Trošelj et al., 2023; Nayak, 2024). The precipitation patterns together with relative humidity clearly indicates the important for assessing the likelihood of floods, particularly in areas with high humidity and precipitation events (Nayak et al., 2025).

3.4. Temperature Versus Dew Point Temperature

To understand the heat intensification, we analysis the relationship between temperature and dew point temperature over time. It is shown in Figure 4. We find that the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture, causes humid conditions, especially when it shows a high value. Numerous studies show this effect through Clausius-Clapeyron analysis (Nayak and Dairaku, 2016; Nayak et al., 2018, 2020). In our results, high temperatures and dew point temperatures together contribute to the feeling of extreme events, indicating a discomfort and health risk situations (Saha et al., 2014).

4. Discussion

The study analyses the interrelationships between land, atmosphere and ocean to understand how interactions between these elements affect the intensity of extreme weather events. The study analysed important parameters such as temperature, precipitation, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity and dew point, and its results have helped us understand the deeper relationship between different weather phenomena. We found that when the temperature falls excessively (below 0°C), the relative humidity increases (Figure 1). This is especially important for events such as cold waves and snowfall. Due to the high humidity, cold conditions can become more intense, leading to increased cases of snowfall or heavy dew. A positive correlation was found between wind speed and local pressure, indicating that areas with high wind speed and low pressure could cause storm surge (Figure 2). During tropical cyclones, this favorable relationship in wind speed and pressure indicates the development of stormy conditions (Nayak and Takemi, 2020, 2021; Morimoto et al., 2021; Nayak and Kanda, 2023). The relationship between temperature and dew point temperature showed that when both the temperature and dew point are high, extreme heat conditions arise (Figure 3). A positive correlation was observed between precipitation and relative humidity (Figure 4), which could increase the risk of heavy precipitation and flooding.

The study suggests that the relationship between these weather variables may change due to climate change (Nayak 2023). Rising temperatures, greater humidity, and sea level changes due to climate change can increase the intensity of events such as tropical cyclones, heat waves, and floods (Nayak et al., 2013; Nayak and Mandal, 2019; Nayak, 2021). The interactions between anthropogenic and natural components, such as human activities, industrialization, and land-use change (Nayak and Behera, 2008, 2009; Nayak et al., 2019, 2021) can impact the intensity of these weather events.

5. Conclusions

This study highlights the interaction between land, atmosphere and ocean and understand how they affect the intensity of extreme weather events. We find that when temperature drops (below 0°C), there is an increase in relative humidity and precipitation, which disturbs the cold weather conditions. The relationship between temperature and dew point temperature showed that when both the temperature and dew point are high, extreme heat conditions arise. A positive correlation was found between wind speed and local pressure, indicating stormy conditions. It provides the basis for dealing with the growing impacts of climate change and the consequences of these events. This study can be expanded with data over a longer period of time to understand the changes between weather events and better understand the impacts of climate change (Nayak and Takemi, 2022, 2024). The results of the study can be used in climate modelling (Nayak et al., 2017, 2018, 2019; Nayak 2021; Maity et al., 2017, 2022) so that we can forecast and risk analysis of extreme weather events. This study may include the impact of human activities such as industrialization, agriculture, and urbanization.