Youth Unrest in Higher Education Institutions in India: A Comprehensive Research Review

1. Introduction

Youth unrest in India’s higher education institutions (HEIs) is a pressing concern that reflects a complex interplay of societal, economic, and political factors. India, with the world’s largest youth population, stands at a crossroads, where the aspirations and frustrations of its young people are increasingly visible in the form of protests, strikes, and activism. This youth demographic, which constitutes a significant portion of the country’s population, is pivotal to the nation’s future, not only in terms of economic growth but also in driving social change and technological advancement. However, the gap between their aspirations and the reality they face is widening, leading to an environment where discontent is frequently expressed through unrest [1].

The landscape of youth unrest in India has evolved significantly over the decades [2]. From being a part of the freedom struggle to protesting against social inequalities, from demanding justice in the post-independence era to challenging the commercialization and privatization of education in modern times, student activism has shaped and reshaped India's political and social fabric. Historically, youth movements in India have played a central role in challenging the status quo, advocating for reforms, and influencing national policy decisions. From the anti-Emergency protests in the 1970s to the more recent protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and the National Register of Citizens (NRC), students have often been at the forefront of political movements, demanding change.

However, in contemporary times, youth unrest is no longer solely about political or ideological clashes. It is increasingly tied to systemic issues such as economic instability, unemployment, socio-economic inequalities, and the lack of opportunities in higher education and employment. The challenges faced by young people—especially in the context of education, employment, and social mobility—often find expression in the form of protests, strikes, and movements on university campuses. The surge in privatization and commercialization of education, rising fees, discrimination, inadequate infrastructure, and the lack of democratic governance in educational institutions are some of the primary triggers for unrest [3].

Furthermore, digital technology and social media have transformed the way youth movements manifest. In recent years, platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have amplified student voices, enabling faster mobilization and wider reach. These digital platforms not only help in organizing protests but also in creating spaces for dialogue, awareness, and solidarity across the country. However, the rapid spread of misinformation and sensationalized news also complicates the situation, making conflict resolution more challenging [4].

Despite the disruptions caused by youth unrest, it also presents an opportunity for reflection and reform [5]. While protests and movements disrupt academic activities and often lead to heightened polarization, they also serve as powerful catalysts for change. Youth protests have led to significant policy changes in the past, and they continue to push for reforms in education, governance, and social justice. When channeled constructively, youth activism can foster democratic engagement, highlight systemic issues, and drive institutional reforms.

The dynamics of youth unrest in India are multifaceted, and understanding the underlying causes, manifestations, and implications is essential for addressing the challenges that young people face. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nature of youth unrest in Indian HEIs, exploring its historical context, the factors driving unrest, its impact on society, and the policy recommendations needed to create a more inclusive, equitable, and democratic educational environment. The goal is not just to manage unrest but to recognize the potential for positive transformation that youth activism holds [6]. By addressing the root causes of discontent and creating avenues for meaningful engagement, India can harness the energy of its youth for the betterment of society, thereby fostering sustainable social and educational development.

2. Historical Context

Youth unrest in India’s higher education institutions (HEIs) has a rich and complex history that reflects the changing socio-political landscape of the country [7]. From the colonial era to the present day, student movements in India have been a reflection of the nation’s struggles for independence, social justice, and economic equality. The roots of student activism can be traced back to pre-independence India, where universities and colleges played an instrumental role in mobilizing youth for nationalistic causes. Over time, youth unrest has evolved, responding to shifts in the political, economic, and social fabric of India [8].

2.1. Pre-Independence Era: Nationalism and Anti-Colonial Movements

In the years leading up to India’s independence from British rule in 1947, student activism was central to the national movement. Universities such as Aligarh Muslim University, Calcutta University, and Banaras Hindu University became breeding grounds for nationalist leaders and revolutionary movements. The student population of this time was deeply influenced by the fight for independence, with youth playing a crucial role in protests, boycotts, and demonstrations against colonial rule. Students were at the forefront of pivotal events, including the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) and the Quit India Movement (1942). Many of India’s future political leaders, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Sardar Patel, were actively involved in these movements during their youth, highlighting the critical role that students played in shaping India’s political landscape.

During this period, youth unrest was driven by the desire for political freedom and social reform, reflecting broader national aspirations for self-rule. The involvement of students in the freedom struggle helped solidify the role of youth as active participants in the political and social life of the country [9].

2.2. Post-Independence Era: The Rise of Student Movements in the 1960s-1970s

After India gained independence in 1947, the nature of youth unrest shifted as the country began to address its internal challenges. The 1950s and early 1960s were marked by relative political stability; however, by the mid-1960s, social and economic tensions began to surface. Unemployment, poverty, and the failure of the state to address the needs of marginalized communities became prominent issues. The youth, especially students, increasingly became disillusioned with the political leadership’s ability to deliver on promises of social and economic equality [10].

In the late 1960s and 1970s, student movements became more pronounced as young people began to protest against the rising economic disparities and authoritarian tendencies within the government. The emergency period (1975–1977), declared by then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, saw widespread repression of political dissent, including student protests. The students’ protests during the Emergency are some of the most significant expressions of unrest in post-independence India. They played a crucial role in resisting authoritarianism and pushing for the restoration of democratic freedoms. Universities like Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) and Banaras Hindu University (BHU) became centers of anti-government mobilization, where students voiced their discontent over state control and civil liberties [11].

During this time, youth unrest was closely tied to resistance against government policies perceived as oppressive or undemocratic, highlighting students' central role in advocating for democratic rights and freedoms.

2.3. 1980s and 1990s: Caste Politics and Identity-Based Movements

The 1980s and 1990s marked a period of significant political change in India, and student unrest evolved to reflect the changing socio-political environment. The introduction of the Mandal Commission recommendations in the early 1990s, which advocated for reservations (affirmative action) for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in government jobs and educational institutions, sparked a major wave of protests. The Mandal Commission protests, particularly the protests in 1990 and 1991, were driven by students from the upper castes who opposed caste-based reservations, while students from marginalized communities supported the recommendations [12].

These protests were intense and led to violent clashes, suicides, and widespread student mobilization. They highlighted the deep divisions within Indian society based on caste, as well as the emerging politics of identity and social justice. The Mandal protests also saw the increasing intersection of student movements with regional and caste-based political parties, which sought to mobilize students to push for their respective agendas. The protests exemplified how issues of identity and social inequality could become central themes in student activism, shifting away from purely ideological or political protests [13].

In addition to the Mandal protests, this period also saw student movements linked to issues such as unemployment, economic liberalization, and the rise of neoliberal policies in India. The liberalization of the Indian economy in the early 1990s led to profound changes in the country’s socio-economic landscape. Students began to protest against the perceived elitism of these economic reforms, which they saw as benefiting the rich and powerful while neglecting the marginalized and working classes.

2.4. 2000s and Beyond: Privatization, Globalization, and New Forms of Protest

The 21st century has witnessed a new wave of youth unrest, often driven by issues related to the commercialization of education, globalization, and the privatization of public institutions. As India’s economy opened up to the world in the 1990s and early 2000s, the higher education sector underwent significant changes. The rise of private universities, increasing tuition fees, and the privatization of education have led to growing concerns about the accessibility and affordability of education for students from lower-income backgrounds [14].

Student protests against fee hikes, the commercialization of education, and the privatization of public universities have become increasingly common in the 2000s. These protests highlight the growing gap between rich and poor students, with many expressing frustration over the increasingly market-driven nature of education. The protests also reflect a broader concern about the erosion of public funding for higher education and the prioritization of profit-making over educational equity [15].

In recent years, youth unrest has also been amplified by the rise of digital platforms. Social media has transformed the nature of student activism, enabling rapid mobilization and the creation of digital communities that transcend physical boundaries. Digital activism has allowed students to voice their concerns, share information, and organize protests in ways that were previously impossible. The student protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019, for example, were fueled by widespread online campaigns, with students using hashtags and social media platforms to organize rallies and express their opposition to the controversial law.

Additionally, issues such as gender inequality, sexual harassment, and the marginalization of Dalits, tribals, and other minorities have gained prominence in recent student movements. These movements reflect the intersectionality of contemporary student activism, where multiple issues—economic, social, and political—are brought together under the umbrella of youth unrest.

3. Causes of Youth Unrest

Youth unrest in higher education institutions (HEIs) in India is driven by a variety of factors that are deeply intertwined with political, socioeconomic, and cultural contexts. These causes, while diverse, reflect broader societal challenges that manifest within the microcosm of university campuses. The main categories that contribute to youth unrest include political influences, socioeconomic pressures, campus environment and governance, identity and discrimination, and the influence of technology and media [16].

3.1. Political Influences

Political factors play a significant role in shaping the dynamics of youth unrest in Indian HEIs. Campuses have long been sites of ideological debates and activism, often mirroring national and regional political movements. Some key political causes of unrest include:

a. 

Ideological Clashes and Polarization

Student organizations in Indian HEIs are frequently affiliated with political parties, leading to intense ideological battles on campuses. Groups aligned with left-wing, right-wing, or centrist ideologies often engage in protests, strikes, and rallies, leading to heightened political polarization. These ideological divides can sometimes result in violent confrontations, both between student factions and with authorities [17].

b. 

Political Interference in Campus Administration

State involvement in the governance of universities, particularly in the selection of key administrative positions like vice-chancellors, has become a contentious issue. When appointments are seen as politically motivated rather than merit-based, students often perceive this as undermining academic autonomy and institutional independence. This dissatisfaction is exacerbated when government policies or changes in academic curricula are perceived as attempts to impose particular political or ideological leanings on students [18].

c. 

Policy Decisions and Student Movements

Various political decisions at both the national and state levels often trigger student protests. Issues such as the implementation of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), changes in reservation policies, and the introduction of new education reforms often spark unrest on campuses. These policies can be seen as discriminatory or as threats to social justice, leading to widespread protests from students who view them as harmful to the rights of marginalized communities [19].

d. 

Electoral Politics in Student Unions

Student union elections, which are often heavily influenced by political parties, can exacerbate factionalism and violence on campuses. These elections are not only about student governance but are sometimes seen as microcosms of national political battles. As a result, students are often drawn into broader partisan conflicts, further polarizing campus communities and escalating tensions [20].

e. 

Instrumentalization of Youth Movements

At times, political parties leverage student movements for their own gain, using campuses as platforms to amplify their own agendas. While this allows students to participate in larger societal debates, it also risks transforming genuine grievances into politically motivated campaigns. This further complicates the student protest environment, as movements that initially address institutional issues may be diverted toward partisan causes.

Table 1. Key Factors Contributing to Youth Unrest in HEIs.

Category	Specific Issues	Examples
Socioeconomic Factors	Rising cost of education, unemployment, economic inequality	Fee hike protests, job placement grievances
Political Influences	Ideological clashes, policy opposition, student union politics	Protests against CAA, caste-based reservations
Governance Issues	Lack of transparency, exclusion from decision-making	Protests demanding democratic representation
Campus Environment	Poor infrastructure, safety concerns, cultural insensitivity	Hostel shortages, harassment cases

Table 1. Key Factors Contributing to Youth Unrest in HEIs.

Category	Specific Issues	Examples
Socioeconomic Factors	Rising cost of education, unemployment, economic inequality	Fee hike protests, job placement grievances
Political Influences	Ideological clashes, policy opposition, student union politics	Protests against CAA, caste-based reservations
Governance Issues	Lack of transparency, exclusion from decision-making	Protests demanding democratic representation
Campus Environment	Poor infrastructure, safety concerns, cultural insensitivity	Hostel shortages, harassment cases

3.2. Socioeconomic Pressures

Socioeconomic disparities within and outside the campus are another crucial source of youth unrest. As students from different economic backgrounds converge on Indian campuses, disparities in wealth, opportunity, and access to resources often lead to frustration and discontent. Some major socioeconomic causes include [21]:

a. 

Rising Cost of Education

The increasing privatization of higher education has led to a significant rise in tuition fees and other associated costs. For students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, this makes accessing quality education extremely difficult. Even in public institutions, rising costs, including hostel fees, transportation, and study materials, make higher education unaffordable for many. These financial pressures have sparked protests against fee hikes and calls for greater affordability and equity in education [22].

b. 

Limited Financial Aid and Scholarships

While India has a variety of scholarship schemes aimed at helping students from marginalized communities (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes), these programs often fail to meet demand. Delays in disbursing scholarships, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and inadequate financial support contribute to student dissatisfaction. The lack of a robust financial aid system, especially in light of rising educational costs, is a significant driver of unrest among students from underprivileged backgrounds [23].

c. 

Unemployment and Underemployment

There is a growing disconnect between the higher education system and the job market in India. Many graduates find themselves unemployed or underemployed, leading to disillusionment. Students are increasingly frustrated by the gap between the skills they acquire in universities and the skills required by the job market. The growing pressure to find employment, combined with limited job opportunities, exacerbates feelings of frustration, leading to protests and demands for better job placement support and skill development programs within universities [24].

d. 

Economic Inequality on Campuses

Economic disparities among students on campuses are stark. Students from affluent backgrounds often have access to resources such as private tutors, advanced technology, and additional academic support, giving them a significant advantage over their less wealthy peers. This inequality in access to resources leads to feelings of alienation and resentment, further fueling protests for greater inclusivity and equal opportunities [19].

e. 

Impact of Regional Disparities

Students from rural or economically backward regions often face additional challenges, such as language barriers, cultural differences, and inadequate preparatory education. These students may struggle to adapt to the demands of university life and the more competitive academic environment of urban centers. The difficulties faced by students from these regions often manifest as unrest, with demands for greater support, language accommodations, and measures to ensure equal access to quality education for all regions [25].

f. 

Cost of Living and Campus Infrastructure

The rising cost of living in metropolitan areas, where many prestigious HEIs are located, adds to the financial strain on students. Many students face difficulties with basic living expenses, including rent, food, and transportation. Moreover, inadequate infrastructure in universities—such as poorly maintained hostels, lack of clean drinking water, unreliable internet, and outdated classrooms—further amplifies discontent, as students demand better living conditions and modernized facilities [26].

3.3. Campus Environment and Governance

The governance and management of campuses play a central role in shaping student experiences. Unclear, opaque, or authoritarian governance can lead to dissatisfaction and unrest among students. Some major factors contributing to unrest in this area include:

a. 

Inadequate Infrastructure

Many Indian HEIs suffer from poor infrastructure, including overcrowded classrooms, outdated laboratories, substandard hostels, and a lack of modern educational technology. These deficiencies hinder academic progress and contribute to student dissatisfaction, as students demand better resources to facilitate their learning.

b. 

Authoritarian Administrative Practices

Students often criticize university administrations for their top-down, authoritarian decision-making style. Issues like fee hikes, changes in curricula, and policies that affect students' daily lives are often decided without consulting the student body. This lack of participation leads to a sense of alienation among students, who feel that their voices are not being heard in decisions that directly affect them. The lack of democratic governance can trigger protests and strikes, as students demand greater representation and involvement in decision-making processes [27].

c. 

Lack of Student Representation

Many campuses lack strong and effective student representation in university governance. Student unions, where they exist, are often sidelined by administrative authorities, leaving students without adequate channels to voice their concerns. This absence of representation exacerbates feelings of disenfranchisement, leading to protests and strikes as students struggle to make their concerns heard [28].

d. 

Safety and Security Concerns

The safety and security of students, particularly women and marginalized groups, remain significant concerns on many campuses. Incidents of sexual harassment, bullying, and violence often go unaddressed, leading to student unrest. Universities are frequently accused of neglecting the creation of a safe and inclusive environment for all students. This neglect often sparks protests, particularly from students advocating for stronger security measures and greater accountability from university authorities [29].

e. 

Bureaucratic Inefficiencies

Bureaucratic delays and inefficiencies are another common source of frustration. Processes like registering for exams, applying for scholarships, and resolving grievances can be lengthy and opaque, leading to added stress for students. The lack of timely action or resolution further alienates students, prompting them to resort to strikes and demonstrations.

f. 

Cultural Insensitivity and Exclusion

Many students from diverse cultural, linguistic, or regional backgrounds feel excluded on campuses, where there is often little recognition of their unique needs or experiences. Discrimination based on caste, language, or regional identity is common, and campuses sometimes fail to foster an inclusive environment. This lack of cultural sensitivity contributes to unrest, as students demand more inclusive policies and a greater appreciation of their diverse identities [29].

g. 

Privatization and Commercialization

The increasing privatization of education and commercialization of campus facilities has added to students’ dissatisfaction. Many students view these trends as prioritizing profit over their welfare, leading to protests against fee hikes, reduced public funding for education, and a perceived erosion of the public good in education. This further fuels unrest, as students push for a return to more affordable, publicly funded higher education systems [15].

3.4. Identity and Discrimination

Identity-based discrimination, including caste-based discrimination, gender biases, and religious intolerance, frequently emerges as a major cause of youth unrest on Indian campuses. High-profile incidents, such as the protests following Rohith Vemula’s death, highlight deep-seated grievances related to social exclusion and inequality.

a. 

Caste-based Discrimination

Caste-based discrimination remains a pervasive issue in Indian universities, particularly affecting students from lower castes. Dalit and Other Backward Class (OBC) students often experience exclusion, bias, and harassment, leading to protests for greater inclusivity, affirmative action, and institutional reforms [12].

b. 

Gender Biases

Gender-based discrimination is another significant issue, with women facing harassment, lack of safety, and unequal access to opportunities. The prevalence of sexual harassment and the failure of authorities to adequately address such issues contribute to unrest, with students calling for stronger safeguards and gender-sensitive policies [30].

c. 

Religious Intolerance

Religious intolerance, often exacerbated by national political discourse, also contributes to campus unrest. Students from minority religious communities may face discrimination or violence on campuses, leading to protests demanding greater protection of religious freedoms and secularism in educational institutions.

3.5. Technological and Media Influence

Social media has had a profound impact on youth unrest in India, both as a tool for organizing protests and as a platform for amplifying grievances. While social media platforms provide a space for students to share their concerns and mobilize support quickly, they can also exacerbate conflicts through the spread of misinformation and sensationalized coverage [30].

a. 

Digital Activism

Digital platforms, particularly social media, have transformed the nature of youth activism in India. Students can now organize protests, share information, and raise awareness on a national scale within hours. Hashtags, online petitions, and live streaming of protests have made it easier to gain attention for student issues, allowing movements to gain momentum more quickly [31].

b. 

Misinformation and Escalation

However, the same platforms that facilitate activism can also be sources of misinformation. Sensationalized or misleading content can escalate conflicts, making it more difficult for institutions and authorities to resolve issues peacefully. The spread of false narratives can deepen divisions, making resolution more challenging [32].

4. Manifestations of Youth Unrest

Youth unrest in higher education institutions (HEIs) in India is not just a matter of grievances but often leads to tangible and visible manifestations of dissatisfaction [33]. These manifestations can take many forms, ranging from peaceful protests to violent confrontations, and are reflective of the broader socio-political climate. The response to issues such as political interference, socioeconomic inequality, and lack of institutional accountability manifests in various ways, each with its own implications for the university community and the wider society.

4.1. Protests and Demonstrations

Protests are one of the most common and direct manifestations of youth unrest on Indian campuses. They are typically sparked by specific issues—such as fee hikes, caste-based discrimination, or political interference in university governance—and are characterized by collective mobilization of students. Key forms of protests include:

a. 

Street Protests

Students often organize mass demonstrations on the streets of university campuses or even in the surrounding urban areas to voice their concerns. These protests may involve symbolic actions, such as marches, sit-ins, and rallies, aimed at drawing attention to the issue at hand. Street protests are designed to engage the public and put pressure on both the university administration and the government to address the students' demands [34].

b. 

Peaceful Sit-ins and Strikes

A common form of peaceful protest is the sit-in, where students occupy a public space on campus to demand changes. Strikes, where students refuse to attend classes or exams to protest against a particular policy, are also widespread [35]. These sit-ins and strikes disrupt the academic environment, serving as a form of resistance against perceived injustices. While often peaceful, these protests can paralyze the functioning of the campus, compelling authorities to address the students’ concerns.

c. 

Hunger Strikes and Fast-unto-Death

Some students, in an effort to highlight the urgency of their cause, may resort to hunger strikes or fast-unto-death campaigns. These extreme forms of protest are designed to evoke a strong emotional response from the public and draw national or international attention to their issues. Hunger strikes have historically been a tool for marginalized groups, such as Dalit students or students protesting caste-based discrimination, to demand justice [36].

d. 

Campus Rallies

Rallies are a large-scale gathering of students, sometimes with the support of faculty members, in order to make their demands heard by a wider audience. These rallies may include speeches, chants, and calls for political or administrative change. They often draw attention to issues like fee hikes, exclusionary policies, or political interference in university affairs [37].

e. 

Online Petitions and Digital Activism

In the digital age, protests have taken a new form with the use of social media platforms. Students now use Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp to organize virtual protests, spread awareness, and gather support. Digital activism through hashtags, online petitions, and social media campaigns can amplify physical protests, bringing attention to their causes and mobilizing larger audiences beyond the campus [38].

4.2. Violence and Vandalism

While many student protests remain non-violent, some manifestations of youth unrest can escalate into violence and vandalism. These incidents may occur due to frustrations with the slow pace of institutional response, political interference, or when protests are met with heavy-handed tactics from the administration or law enforcement. Forms of violence and vandalism include:

a. 

Clashes with Police or Security Forces

When protests become intense, student demonstrators sometimes clash with campus security or police forces deployed by university authorities or the state government. These confrontations can involve physical altercations, the use of tear gas, water cannons, or baton charges, leading to injuries or arrests. These violent incidents often draw media attention and fuel further unrest, especially if students feel that the authorities are using disproportionate force [39].

b. 

Destruction of Property

In extreme cases, student protests may turn destructive, with students damaging university property, such as office buildings, libraries, vehicles, or even the personal property of administrators. Vandalism is often seen as a way of expressing frustration and anger toward perceived systemic failures. These acts can have long-term consequences for the reputation of the institution and may lead to punitive actions by the administration, which can further inflame tensions [40].

c. 

Campus Fights between Political Factions

Student unions affiliated with different political ideologies may clash violently, especially when elections are held for the student body. In such cases, the rivalry between factions can escalate into full-scale fights, often involving the use of weapons, such as sticks or stones. These violent incidents are sometimes a manifestation of broader political struggles that extend beyond the campus but play out in the form of violent confrontations on university grounds [41].

d. 

Sexual Harassment and Gender-Based Violence

Gender-based violence, including sexual harassment and assault, is another manifestation of youth unrest, particularly in contexts where the university administration has failed to ensure the safety of women students. In some instances, women students have taken to the streets in large protests, demanding action against perpetrators and better protection for women on campus. Such protests often gain significant media attention, especially in the wake of high-profile incidents [42].

4.3. Strikes and Boycotts

Strikes and boycotts are some of the most common methods employed by students to disrupt normal academic activities in order to pressurize university authorities or the government to address their demands. Strikes may involve:

a. 

Academic Boycotts

Students may organize strikes that involve boycotting classes, exams, or other academic activities to protest against issues like fee hikes, poor infrastructure, or administrative negligence. This form of protest significantly impacts the functioning of the institution, drawing attention to students' concerns and compelling the authorities to negotiate [43].

b. 

Administrative Boycotts

In some cases, student unions may organize boycotts of specific administrative offices or key events such as convocations or important meetings. Such boycotts aim to embarrass the administration and force it to engage with the students' demands for reform or resolution of grievances [44].

c. 

General Strikes Across Multiple Campuses

When students from multiple universities across a state or even the country join together to protest a common issue, it is referred to as a general strike. These strikes have the potential to cause widespread disruption and receive significant media coverage. Examples of this include protests against the implementation of controversial national policies like the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) or the National Register of Citizens (NRC) [45].

4.4. Cultural and Artistic Expression

Another manifestation of youth unrest is the use of cultural and artistic expression as a form of protest. Students often turn to creative outlets like music, theater, poetry, and visual arts to express their dissent and raise awareness about their causes. This includes:

a. 

Street Plays and Theater

Student groups often organize street plays or theater performances that highlight social, political, or educational issues. These performances may tackle topics like caste discrimination, gender inequality, corruption, or political repression, using humor, drama, and satire to engage the audience [46]. These performances often take place in public spaces on or near campus, making them accessible to a wider audience.

b. 

Music and Poetry

Music and poetry have long been tools for students to articulate their feelings of disillusionment and resistance. Protest songs, rap, and poetry slams often become a soundtrack to student movements, amplifying their messages. Music can serve as a rallying cry during protests, helping to unify participants and draw attention to the cause. Poetic expressions of resistance and dissent also help convey emotions and frustrations that are sometimes difficult to express through direct political speech [47].

c. 

Art Installations and Exhibitions

Art installations and exhibitions can be powerful forms of protest, where students create visual representations of their concerns. These may include murals, graffiti, sculptures, or other forms of art placed in prominent areas of campus to communicate the political and social messages that students want to highlight. The act of creating and displaying art becomes an act of resistance in itself, fostering dialogue and reflection among the campus community and beyond [48].

4.5. Media Attention and Public Support

Youth unrest often garners significant media attention, which can either amplify or undermine the effectiveness of the protests. Students often use media to publicize their demands, but their message can be co-opted or misrepresented. Key manifestations in this regard include:

a. 

Coverage by National and International Media

Protests on university campuses often make headlines, especially when they involve high-profile issues such as caste violence, gender discrimination, or political crackdowns. Media coverage can amplify the demands of students, bringing national or even international attention to the issues being protested. This external attention can sometimes pressure university authorities and governments to address grievances more quickly [49].

b. 

Social Media Campaigns

Students increasingly use social media platforms to document protests, share personal stories, and mobilize support. Hashtags like #SaveOurUniversities or #JusticeForStudents can go viral, reaching millions of people and encouraging solidarity from other students, activists, and organizations. These digital platforms help create a sense of solidarity among students across campuses and increase the visibility of their struggles [50].

5. Recent Trends in Youth Unrest in India

Youth unrest in India has been a consistent feature of the country’s political and social landscape, but in recent years, certain trends have emerged, shaping the nature and scale of student protests and activism. These trends are influenced by a variety of factors, including political developments, technological advancements, and shifting societal norms. Youth today are more connected, more politically aware, and more willing to challenge authority, often resulting in movements that are both deeply impactful and far-reaching.

Here are some key recent trends in youth unrest in India:

5.1. Digital Mobilization and Social Media Activism

The role of digital platforms in youth unrest has significantly increased in recent years. Social media has become a powerful tool for mobilizing, organizing, and amplifying youth protests and movements. Online platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp have enabled students and young activists to spread their messages far beyond campus boundaries [51]. This digital activism has brought about several significant changes:

a. 

Viral Campaigns and Hashtags

Social media platforms have facilitated the rapid spread of movements through viral hashtags and online petitions. Hashtags such as #OccupyUGC (2015), #SaveJNU (2016), and #JusticeForStudents have been pivotal in organizing protests against educational policies and social issues. The global reach of social media allows students to gain international attention for their causes, forcing both national and local authorities to respond [52].

b. 

Real-Time Mobilization

With the widespread use of smartphones and social media apps, students can now mobilize in real-time. Protests that might have once taken weeks or months to organize can now be planned and executed in days or even hours, thanks to the viral nature of digital content. This has made it easier for young people to rally others to join protests, regardless of their geographical location [53].

c. 

Spread of Political Movements

Social media has not only amplified student protests but has also helped spread political and social movements. Young people, especially university students, are increasingly adopting platforms like Twitter and Instagram to share their political views, organize protests, and participate in debates about national and local issues. These online spaces have facilitated cross-campus collaborations, allowing various student organizations to unify their voices in national struggles [54].

5.2. Political Polarization and Campus Conflicts

In recent years, political polarization on campuses has been another prominent trend contributing to youth unrest. As political ideologies become more sharply divided, student groups often find themselves aligned with particular national or regional political parties. This has led to:

a. 

Increasingly Political Student Movements

Youth unrest is no longer just about university issues like fees or faculty shortages; it has increasingly become linked with national political developments. Issues like the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and National Register of Citizens (NRC), which ignited protests across the country in 2019-2020, have seen youth actively participating in the streets. Similarly, protests against government policies, including those related to education, unemployment, and corruption, have sparked wide participation from students [55].

b. 

Campus Elections and Violence

Student body elections in several universities have become a battleground for competing political ideologies, leading to more aggressive confrontations between rival student factions. Political party affiliations within student unions have escalated tensions on campuses, leading to violence, clashes with university administration, and public demonstrations. The political divide often exacerbates unrest and creates a hostile environment in educational spaces [56].

c. 

Ideological Battles

In some universities, the debate has moved from peaceful protests to ideological battles, particularly in the wake of global political developments and national controversies. Movements for social justice, caste equality, and minority rights are increasingly being framed within broader ideological frameworks. This has led to a significant rise in the polarization of student movements, where groups either strongly support or oppose government policies [57].

5.3. Focus on Social Justice and Inclusion

Recent youth protests in India have increasingly focused on issues related to social justice, inclusion, and representation. These movements are not just about political or educational reforms but also about ensuring equal rights for marginalized groups:

a. 

Caste-based Discrimination and Affirmative Action

There has been a growing focus on caste-based discrimination, especially among students from Dalit, OBC, and Adivasi communities. The suicide of Rohith Vemula, a Dalit PhD student at the University of Hyderabad in 2016, sparked widespread protests, highlighting the issues of caste-based discrimination in academic institutions. Since then, issues related to caste-based violence, underrepresentation in higher education, and demand for more robust affirmative action policies have become central to student movements [58].

b. 

Gender and Sexuality Rights

Women students and LGBTQIA+ activists have increasingly used their voices to challenge the patriarchy that exists in universities. Movements like #MeToo have found support among youth activists, who are calling for safer campuses, gender equality, and better representation [59]. Issues such as sexual harassment, unequal access to education for women in rural areas, and a lack of support for transgender students have become important areas of activism.

c. 

Regional and Minority Rights

Students from marginalized communities, particularly from northeastern states, Jammu & Kashmir, and tribal areas, have also come to the forefront in demanding more equitable representation and inclusion in national dialogues. Issues such as the abrogation of Article 370 in Jammu & Kashmir, the imposition of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in Assam, and the rights of indigenous peoples have led to widespread protests from youth advocating for social justice [60].

5.4. Educational Policies and Accessibility

Youth unrest has been significantly driven by changes and challenges related to education policies, accessibility, and quality. Several recent developments have had direct implications for students:

a. 

Fee Hikes and Financial Barriers

One of the most consistent triggers of youth unrest has been the rise in educational costs. Fee hikes in universities, particularly public institutions, have led to protests, as students from lower-income backgrounds struggle with access to higher education. Students from economically disadvantaged communities and first-generation learners often face the brunt of fee increases, exacerbating inequality in access to education [61].

b. 

Privatization of Education

There is growing concern over the increasing privatization and commercialization of education, with students fearing that higher education is becoming increasingly inaccessible to the majority of the population. The push for privatization has led to the closure of several public institutions, the reduction of scholarships, and the rise of unaffordable tuition fees. These concerns have sparked protests against government policies and led students to demand that education remain a public good.

c. 

National Education Policies

Proposals such as the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which sought to reform India’s educational system, have triggered debates over their implications for students, particularly in terms of affordability, accessibility, and the quality of education. While some welcomed the policy's focus on digital learning and interdisciplinary studies, others criticized it for focusing more on privatization and centralization. Youth movements have emerged to debate these policies and demand reforms that prioritize the interests of students [10].

5.5. Environmental and Climate Movements

In recent years, there has been an increasing convergence between youth unrest and environmental activism. The younger generation in India is more attuned to the global climate crisis and is actively participating in protests and movements demanding climate action.

a. 

Fridays for Future

Inspired by global climate movements, especially Swedish activist Greta Thunberg’s “Fridays for Future” movement, Indian students have organized climate strikes in various cities. These movements demand urgent action on issues like air pollution, deforestation, waste management, and water scarcity [62]. Youth activists are calling for the government to implement sustainable environmental practices and prioritize climate change in policy discussions.

b. 

Environmental Justice and Sustainability

Environmental justice, which links environmental degradation to social inequality, is another emerging area of concern. Students are increasingly linking environmental issues to the rights of marginalized communities, especially indigenous populations and rural farmers. Students have participated in protests against industrial projects that threaten ecological balance and the livelihoods of local populations [63].

5.6. Global Solidarity and Intersectionality

Youth unrest today is characterized by global solidarity, with Indian students aligning themselves with international movements. Students have voiced their support for global causes like Black Lives Matter, #MeToo, and Palestinian rights, often through protests or social media campaigns. The concept of intersectionality, where various forms of oppression are interconnected, has become more pronounced in recent years, leading to movements that address a wider array of issues simultaneously, such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, and racial justice.

6. Implications of Youth Unrest in India

Youth unrest in India, while often a response to specific grievances, carries far-reaching implications for the society, economy, politics, and culture. While student protests and movements can sometimes lead to positive changes, they also pose challenges and disrupt the status quo. The implications of youth unrest can be understood in various contexts, from political and social impacts to the consequences on educational institutions and governance [64].

6.1. Political Implications

Youth unrest has profound political consequences, both for the governing authorities and for the political landscape of the country.

a. 

Challenges to Political Authority

One of the most significant implications of youth unrest is the challenge it poses to political authority and governance. When young people actively protest, they often question the legitimacy of policies or the political system. The scale of protests—especially when they involve a large segment of the student population or young professionals—can signal deep dissatisfaction with government policies. In some cases, protests have led to changes in government or have compelled policymakers to reconsider or revise their policies, as seen in past movements like those surrounding the anti-corruption protests in 2011 and the protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019-2020.

b. 

Emergence of New Political Leaders and Movements

Youth unrest often gives rise to new political leaders and movements. Many politicians, especially those aligned with student unions or youth wings of political parties, rise to prominence through their involvement in these protests. For instance, leaders like Kanhaiya Kumar, who emerged from the Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) protests, or the rise of youth movements during anti-CAA protests, reflect how these movements can lead to the emergence of influential political figures. The unrest often sparks a renewed sense of political engagement, particularly among the younger electorate, which can influence electoral outcomes and shift political allegiances [65].

c. 

Policy Reforms

Youth protests often act as a catalyst for policy reforms. When youth movements gain widespread attention, government bodies may feel pressured to make changes in the laws or policies that sparked the unrest. For example, protests against fee hikes and educational cuts have led to the rollback of certain financial policies in universities. Similarly, protests related to caste-based discrimination have led to debates on affirmative action and social justice policies. While not always successful, youth unrest forces policymakers to address issues that may otherwise be sidelined in political discourse [66].

6.2. Social Implications

Youth unrest often reflects deeper social problems, including issues related to inequality, injustice, and a lack of opportunity. The social implications of these movements are both significant and multifaceted.

a. 

Raising Awareness of Social Inequality

One of the most enduring social implications of youth unrest is the spotlight it places on various forms of social inequality. Issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, economic disparity, and educational access are frequently raised by student movements. For example, protests like the Rohith Vemula movement highlighted caste-based discrimination within educational institutions, while gender-based movements have exposed the prevalence of sexual harassment and patriarchal attitudes on campuses. By drawing attention to these issues, youth unrest can foster greater awareness, spark social debate, and push for societal changes [5].

b. 

Empowerment of Marginalized Groups

Youth protests have the potential to empower marginalized groups who have historically been denied equal rights or access to resources. Movements focused on Dalit rights, LGBTQIA+ issues, and the rights of rural and tribal communities often provide a platform for these groups to voice their concerns. The intersectionality of many contemporary youth movements, which link various forms of oppression (such as caste, class, gender, and race), helps amplify the voices of these marginalized groups and brings their issues to the forefront of national discourse [67].

c. 

Strengthening Social Solidarity

At their best, youth movements foster solidarity among different social groups, creating a united front to fight against shared issues. For example, protests for gender equality can unite both men and women, while campaigns against caste discrimination can bring together individuals from various castes, regions, and backgrounds. Such movements build social cohesion and emphasize collective action as a means of addressing structural injustices. These solidarity movements often transcend geographic and social boundaries, creating a more inclusive and just society [68].

6.3. Educational Implications

Student protests, particularly in universities, have significant implications for the educational system and the functioning of educational institutions in India.

a. 

Disruption of Academic Activities

Youth unrest often leads to the disruption of normal academic activities. Protests, strikes, and sit-ins can lead to the closure of universities and colleges, canceling lectures, exams, and academic events. While this is sometimes necessary to raise awareness, it often results in delayed graduations and prolonged academic calendars, affecting students' career prospects. The academic year may be lost or delayed, which can have long-term consequences for the education system, especially in institutions where resources are already stretched thin [69].

b. 

Impact on Campus Culture and Governance

Frequent protests on campuses can shape the culture of universities, transforming them into hubs of activism. On the one hand, this can encourage political awareness and engagement among students. On the other hand, prolonged unrest can lead to a volatile campus environment where student unions and faculty may clash with university administration and security forces. This can sometimes result in a breakdown in trust between students and the administration, which can affect the functioning of educational institutions [70]. The internal politics of universities may also become more polarized, with student groups being divided along ideological lines.

c. 

Reforms in Education Policies

Youth unrest can often bring about changes in education policy. For example, protests against fee hikes, commercialization, and privatization in educational institutions have led to governments revising such policies to make education more affordable. Similarly, concerns over academic freedom, faculty autonomy, and the introduction of controversial curriculums have led to reforms aimed at addressing students' concerns. Protests demanding better facilities, reduced faculty-student ratios, and improved infrastructure can also bring about positive changes if they force university administrations and governments to allocate more funds or focus on reforms [70].

6.4. Economic Implications

Youth unrest can have direct and indirect economic consequences, especially when it disrupts education or leads to significant social upheaval.

a. 

Loss of Productivity

When protests lead to strikes, shutdowns, or closures of universities and colleges, students, teachers, and staff experience a direct loss in productivity. Young people, who are typically the most dynamic and innovative part of the workforce, may also feel discouraged or alienated if their concerns are not addressed. Additionally, large-scale protests in major cities can lead to disruptions in business activities, affecting local economies and trade. The longer unrest persists, the more it can harm the economic prospects of young people, including their ability to complete education, secure employment, and contribute to national economic growth [71].

b. 

Investment in Human Capital

If youth unrest results in prolonged disruptions to education, it can also negatively affect the quality of human capital in the country. Education plays a crucial role in developing a skilled workforce, and delays in academic progress or a lack of adequate skills due to political instability can slow economic development. The long-term economic effects of youth unrest are evident when these disruptions prevent a large number of young people from entering the workforce with the necessary qualifications and skills [72].

c. 

Impact on Youth Employment

Youth unrest also arises from issues such as rising unemployment, which is a significant concern in India. As young people face challenges in securing jobs, their frustration often leads to protests and social movements. These movements call for government policies that focus on job creation, better training opportunities, and entrepreneurship suppor [73]t. A failure to address youth employment issues can result in an increase in social unrest, leading to a vicious cycle of discontent and economic instability.

6.5. Cultural Implications

Youth unrest can also have cultural implications, influencing societal norms, values, and the national identity.

a. 

Shaping Public Discourse

Through protests, youth often challenge established norms and push for a more inclusive and progressive culture. Issues such as gender equality, LGBTQIA+ rights, and caste-based discrimination are often at the forefront of such movements. These protests force society to reflect on its cultural values, encouraging debates that can lead to a transformation in public attitudes. For example, the #MeToo movement, which gained momentum globally, resonated strongly in India, sparking a conversation about the prevalence of sexual harassment and the need for societal change [74].

b. 

Redefining National Identity

Youth unrest can also contribute to the redefinition of national identity. By challenging traditional narratives and norms, young people often seek to redefine what it means to be Indian in the modern world. The participation of youth in movements like the protests against the CAA and NRC or the demand for environmental sustainability reflects a broader attempt to reshape the future of the nation. These movements call for a more inclusive, equal, and environmentally-conscious society that reflects contemporary global values while remaining rooted in India's diverse cultural heritage [75].

7. Policy Recommendations to Address Youth Unrest in India

Youth unrest in India is a critical issue that needs to be addressed by both government bodies and educational institutions. While it is a natural manifestation of the frustrations and aspirations of young people, it can also have serious political, social, economic, and educational consequences if not managed effectively. To mitigate the causes of youth unrest and harness the energy of young people in a constructive manner, several policy recommendations can be considered. These recommendations are aimed at addressing the root causes of unrest, ensuring social cohesion, and creating a supportive environment for the youth to thrive [76].

7.1. Improving Access to Quality Education

a. 

Affordable and Inclusive Education

• One of the primary causes of youth unrest is the growing inequality in access to quality education. High fees, lack of scholarships, and privatization of education have led to frustration among young people. To address this, the government should prioritize policies that make education more affordable and accessible. This can be achieved by:
  • Expanding the availability of government-funded scholarships and financial aid programs.
  • Ensuring that public educational institutions receive adequate funding to maintain and improve infrastructure and faculty.
  • Strengthening the implementation of the Right to Education (RTE) Act to ensure that no child is left behind, particularly from marginalized and economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

b. 

Strengthening Vocational and Technical Education

• There is a significant gap between academic education and the skills required by the job market. To address this, the government should expand and strengthen vocational and technical education programs. These programs should focus on practical skills and industries that are in demand, such as IT, healthcare, engineering, and green technologies. This would not only help in reducing unemployment among young people but also equip them with the skills needed for the future economy [77].

7.2. Enhancing Employment Opportunities

a. 

Job Creation and Youth Employment Policies

• One of the major causes of youth unrest is the high unemployment rate among young people. India’s youth, particularly those who have completed their education, often find it difficult to secure well-paying jobs. The government should implement policies aimed at job creation and improving employment opportunities for the youth. Specific measures include:
  • Introducing skill development programs and aligning them with industry needs to ensure that young people have the qualifications required by employers.
  • Encouraging entrepreneurship through subsidies, tax incentives, and access to credit for young people who want to start their own businesses.
  • Developing government-backed job guarantee schemes for youth, especially in rural areas and in sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, and technology.
  • Promoting the gig economy by offering social security benefits, such as health insurance and retirement funds, to young people working in the informal sector.

c. 

Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)

The government should foster partnerships between public institutions and private industries to create more job opportunities for the youth. This could include internships, apprenticeships, and cooperative education programs, which provide real-world work experience and facilitate better job placements for young graduates.

7.3. Addressing Social Inequality and Inclusivity

a. 

Caste, Gender, and Class-Based Discrimination

• Youth unrest in India is often fueled by social inequalities, particularly caste-based and gender-based discrimination. The government should introduce stronger anti-discrimination laws and policies to promote equality, as well as social justice initiatives that empower marginalized groups. Policy interventions can include:
  • Strengthening affirmative action policies and ensuring that quotas in education and employment are effectively implemented to promote equal opportunities for Dalits, OBCs, and other marginalized communities.
  • Expanding programs for gender equality that address sexual harassment, discrimination in educational institutions, and workplace inequality. The government should also promote awareness about the importance of women’s rights and safety through educational campaigns and public policies.
  • Promoting awareness and community-building initiatives that encourage social harmony and inclusivity across caste, class, and gender lines.

c. 

Reservation for Minority and Marginalized Communities

Efforts should be made to ensure that minorities, including religious and ethnic groups, are well-represented in higher education institutions and the workforce. Policies that provide reservations for these groups can ensure their inclusion and participation in the nation’s growth [78].

7.4. Enhancing Political and Civic Engagement

a. 

Strengthening Democratic Values and Political Literacy

• Many youth protests arise from political frustrations and disillusionment with the government. One of the key ways to address this is by increasing political literacy among the youth. The government and educational institutions should:
  • Introduce programs and courses that promote civic education, democratic values, and the importance of political participation. This could include curriculum changes in schools and universities to engage students in discussions on governance, public policy, and constitutional rights.
  • Facilitate youth participation in politics by lowering the barriers to entry into political organizations and providing them with platforms to express their opinions. This can include youth wings of political parties or independent youth-led movements that engage with policymakers.
  • Organize dialogues between young people and political leaders to address their concerns directly, allowing youth to feel heard and engaged in the political process.

c. 

Encouraging Peaceful Protest and Dialogue

While protests are an important tool for youth to voice their grievances, violence and unrest can often lead to unwanted consequences. The government should ensure that students and youth have the legal right to protest peacefully, and provide them with safe spaces for dialogue.

• Setting up government platforms or forums where youth can engage in discussions with political leaders, civil society, and experts.
• Encouraging institutions to create mechanisms for peaceful protest and conflict resolution that ensure young people's voices are heard without escalating tensions.

7.5. Fostering Mental Health Support and Well-Being

a. 

Addressing Mental Health Challenges

• Mental health issues are an emerging cause of youth unrest, as the pressures of academic competition, unemployment, and societal expectations weigh heavily on young people. To address this, the government and educational institutions should prioritize mental health initiatives. Key measures include:
  • Establishing counseling services in schools, colleges, and universities to provide students with the support they need to manage stress, anxiety, and depression.
  • Launching nationwide mental health awareness campaigns to reduce stigma and educate youth about the importance of mental well-being.
  • Incorporating mental health education into school curricula, ensuring that young people have the tools to recognize and address mental health challenges early on.

  c. 

  Support Systems for Youth Well-being

  In addition to mental health, addressing the overall well-being of youth—physically, socially, and emotionally—is crucial. The government should invest in creating recreational spaces, sports facilities, and youth clubs that provide opportunities for personal growth and social interaction [79]. These platforms should focus on building resilience, leadership skills, and a sense of belonging among young people.

7.6. Promoting Social Media Literacy

a. 

Combating Misinformation and Hate Speech

• Social media plays a significant role in shaping youth opinions and often acts as a platform for organizing protests and spreading political messages. However, it can also be a source of misinformation, radicalization, and hate speech, which can lead to unrest. To address this, the government should:
  • Launch media literacy campaigns to teach youth how to critically analyze information, recognize fake news, and engage responsibly in digital spaces.
  • Implement stronger regulations around the spread of misinformation on social media platforms and encourage companies to take greater responsibility in monitoring content.
  • Educate young people about the importance of responsible social media use and how it can be a tool for positive social change when used appropriately [80].

8. Conclusions

Youth unrest in Indian HEIs is a reflection of the country’s broader social, political, and economic challenges. While it presents significant disruptions, it also provides an opportunity for reform and engagement. By addressing the root causes of unrest through inclusive policies, better governance, and equitable access to education, India can harness the potential of its youth for nation-building. Future research should focus on understanding the long-term impacts of youth unrest and explore innovative strategies for conflict resolution and engagement.