Equity and Inclusion in Climate Action and Adaptation Plans of Michigan Cities

2. Methodology

2.1. Selection of Climate Action and Adaptation Plans

This study examines eight climate plans of seven Michigan cities, including both CAP/CAAPs and stand-alone adaptation plans (Table 1, Figure 1). The seven cities reviewed include: Ann Arbor, Detroit, East Lansing, Grand Rapids, Marquette, Royal Oak, and Traverse City. For the City of Traverse City, both CAP [23] and the Climate Adaptation Case Study [24] were examined. The City of Grand Rapids CAAP is expected to be published by December 2024 [25]. Therefore, only the planning process and engagement of stakeholders but not the content of the forthcoming Grand Rapids CAAP were examined. The choice of case studies aims to offer a good representation of Michigan’s geography and chronological range of plans including the oldest and the most recent plans between 2011 and 2022. It is, however, not intended to provide a comprehensive list of all local climate plans. This study intentionally omits sustainability plans, strategic plans, community resiliency plans, and other planning documents that sometimes address but are not fully dedicated to climate change mitigation and/or adaptation. Furthermore, the research is limited to urban communities.

2.2. Assessment Framework for Equity and Diversity of Stakeholders

To evaluate the consideration of equity and climate plans fourteen (14) following sectors of climate action and adaptation planning were identified: emergency management, housing security, food security, water security, energy security, multimodality of mobility, energy decarbonization, access to urban green infrastructure, health and wellness, environmental education, access to water resources, air quality, waste management, and business/economic activity. Consideration of equity in each of these domains was evaluated on a scale from 0 to 4 (Table 2, column 2), based on the rubric adopted with modifications from [26,27].

To evaluate and compare the inclusion of stakeholders involved in co-production of climate action and climate adaptation plans twelve (12) groups of diverse groups of participants were identified. These are vulnerable groups, social justice advocacy groups, residents and their associations, environmental advocacy groups, colleges and universities, schools, citizen science groups, local elected officials, city planning and services, local businesses, state agencies, and external private firms. Their level of inclusion in the process of co-creation of climate plans was evaluated on a scale from 0 to 4 (Table 2, column 3). Due to a wide chronological range of climate action and adaptation plans in the sample, the study aimed to examine consideration of equity-related objectives articulated across the plans rather than their implementation progress.

All climate plans were read, searched for specific keywords describing adaptation sectors/planning stakeholders, discussed, and rated by all five co-authors based on both rubrics. Ratings were discussed and documented with citations in Excel spreadsheets. When the readers disagreed, the ratings were reconciled through additional readings and discussions till consensus could be reached. The ratings were used to compute percentage scores for each city in order to compare and visualize the ratings for equity-centered climate action and adaptation measures as well as for diversity of stakeholders involved in development of the plans.

Consideration of equity (CE) was calculated as CE = Ʃ (x1,2,3…14) /56 ×100%, where “x” is a number of possible adaptation planning sectors addressed in a plan, ranging from 1 to 14 examined categories, with consideration of equity in each rated on a scale from 0 to 4 based on the rubric (table 2, column 1).

Inclusion of stakeholders (IS) was calculated as IS = Ʃ (y1,2,3…12)/48 ×100%, where “y” is a number of categories of stakeholders involved, ranging from 1 to 12 possible categories, and their engagement was rated on a scale from 0 to 4 based on the rubric (table 2, column 2).

2.3. Interviews and a Survey

As an extension of inclusion of stakeholders, the interest in which groups or individuals provided funding for the various plans was also a point of focus for this study. An online Qualtrics survey with questions about climate action and adaptation planning was sent in January 2023 to all agencies, listed as the primary authors of the plans included in our study. The response level was low, possibly due to a wide publication date range of the plans. Being inconclusive, the survey results have not been included in this analysis. To obtain more information about the planning process and to clarify questions remaining after our own evaluation of the plans, we conducted five in-depth semi-structured interviews with sustainability officers, climate adaptation planners, and leaders of the state and local environmental justice and climate action groups. The interviews were conducted between February 26 and April 4, 2024, via Zoom. They were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed in MAXQDA - a software program designed for computer-assisted qualitative data analysis. Each interview lasted approximately one hour and was based on eleven (11) questions about successes, challenges, and examples of equity goals and inclusion of stakeholders in climate planning. These interactions have provided a rich tapestry of insights into the challenges and proactive measures shaping local policy and community involvement, summarized in Table 3.

3. Results and discussion

The results of our assessment of equity consideration in all municipal CAPs/CAAPs are summarized in Figure 2. Based on the consideration of equity calculations, the City of Ann Arbor “A2Zero Plan” [28] received by far the highest score (54%) and clearly stands out among the other plans based on the number of the included sectors addressed, and the consideration of equity in each individual sector. Areas of particular strength of “A2Zero” include housing, energy decarbonization, waste management, multimodal transportation, and health and wellness (Figure 3a). Equity measures related to air quality, food security, and business/economic activity are also present but with fewer details about their implementation. Ann Arbor has a population of 123,349 [29], ranking as the 5th most populous city in Michigan. Best known as home to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor is a vibrant high-capacity college town with a median income of $78,546 per household and $52,276 per capita [30], much higher than the state and national average. Nevertheless, Ann Arbor’s poverty rate is 23.3%, twice as high as the national average of 11.5% [30].

Based on our computation of CE, it ranges in all other plans between 21% and 33% (Figure 2). A closer examination of CE in specific sectors reveals significant differences among the cities. For example, the Detroit Climate Action Plan [31], discusses equity in business/economic opportunities and community environmental education. It also mentions, without elaborating details, equity in air quality and housing security but omits some other sectors. Detroit is the largest city in Michigan, with a population of 620,376 [32]. In a striking contrast with Ann Arbor, Detroit’s median household income and per capita income are only $37,761 and $22,861 respectively, associated with one of the highest urban poverty rates (31.5%) in the country [32]. On the other hand, the CAP of Traverse City [23], pays attention to equity in energy security, while the Climate Adaptation Case Study of Traverse City [24] considers equity in the access to quality of water resources. Traverse City is a small city with a population of 15,702 enjoying median household income of $70,700 and per capita income $48,883 [33]. An important tourist destination, the city is reputable for its exceptional quality of life, natural beauty, and the presence of numerous environmental advocacy groups. Its poverty rate (11%) is lower than the state and nations averages [33]. The CAP of East Lansing considers equity in access to green infrastructure, while Marquette’s adaptation plan prioritizes equitable environmental education and health/wellness. The CAP of Royal Oak mentions CE in the context of its energy security and multimodality goals.

Although almost all climate plans in our study acknowledge the importance of equity, very few of them offer concrete steps for achieving it. Most plans include statements about the disproportionate impacts of climate change on vulnerable populations and the importance of environmental justice, but do not offer clear strategies for addressing these issues. This finding echoes the concerns raised by stakeholders during the interviews, emphasizing the need for more substantive equity considerations in the planning processes. Affordable housing, energy decarbonization and efficiency, multi-modal transportation, and nature-based solutions through the expansion of infrastructure emerge as sectors where equity considerations are beginning to take shape concretely in some CAPs. Initiatives aimed at improving energy efficiency in low-income neighborhoods and enhancing mobility through affordable electric vehicle programs reflect an attempt to align climate action with equity goals. However, the effectiveness and reach of these initiatives remain subjects for further evaluation.

Scholarly studies worldwide indicate that CE in climate adaptation goals often goes hand in hand with diversity of stakeholders engaged in development of climate plans and representation of their priorities [18,34,35]. Our computation of IS in development of climate plans in Michigan appears to confirm this connection (Figure 4). The IS scores of Ann Arbor’s and Detroit’s CAPs stand out as 60% and 58% respectively, followed by other plans with scores below 40%.

The higher scores reflect both broader coalitions of stakeholders involved in developments of plans and their higher levels of engagement. For example, CAPs of Ann Arbor and Detroit reflect collaboration of city planning staff with social justice advocacy groups, universities, local businesses, and environmental advocacy groups (Figure 5b).

Efforts to engage diverse community stakeholders, particularly those from marginalized and vulnerable groups, were frequently mentioned in climate plans. However, the extent to which these efforts have influenced planning strategies varies. The interviews highlighted initiatives like the Community Collaborative on Climate Change (C4) in Grand Rapids as positive examples of community engagement. Yet, there remains a gap between engaging minority voices and ensuring these voices shape decision-making processes effectively. Stakeholders also identified financial resources as critical to implementing climate action plans, with a mix of federal grants, state funding, and private philanthropy playing roles. However, the most consistent theme was the challenge of securing funding that specifically targets equity goals within climate action initiatives, which is mostly due to the lack of time and personnel dedicated to grant writing. The need for dedicated staff and resources to implement plans was also emphasized by all respondents, pointing to a broader issue of capacity within municipal governments to tackle climate change in an equitable manner.

The twelve (12) federally acknowledged native American tribes that share their land with the State of Michigan enjoy a special status under federal law and treaties [36]. They are sovereign nations that exercise direct jurisdiction over their members and territory and, under some circumstances, over other citizens residing on their land. Tribal governments provide a wide array of governmental services to their members including climate change mitigation and adaptation planning. Dibaginjigaadeg Anishinaabe Ezhitwaad [21], in particular, provides a powerful blueprint for tribal and non-tribal communities interested in indigenous approaches to climate adaptation and the needs and values of tribal communities. Organized in a flexible multi-level framework, the Menu outlines fourteen (14) strategies, over fifty (50) approaches, and over one hundred (100) implementation tactics, developed through focus group discussions, workshops, and assessment of existing climate adaptation tools.

Unfortunately, none of the Michigan cities examined in our study acknowledges indigenous people, their land, their sovereign rights, and their ecological knowledge. Their current climate plans are also missing strategies and goals related to cultural practices, traditions, spiritual guidance, reciprocity with non-human beings, and respectful relationship with nature. Such concepts, however, are foundational in tribal adaptation planning [21] and indigenous culture in general. Indigenous ethics expands the definition of “community” to include not only humans, but also soils, waters, plants, animals, and spiritual beings. It is a moral code of conduct that grows out human kinship with nature, which is a centerpiece of indigenous and many other non-western cultures [37]. Cities, such as Marquette, Traverse City, and Grand Rapids are located in close proximity to native communities, who have already developed their own climate adaptation plans, such as the Match - e -be -nash -she -wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians Climate Adaptation Plan [38] and/or have integrated climate change adaptation in their Hazard Mitigation Plans [39,40]. The Anishinaabe philosophy recognizing the intrinsic value of the environment is urgently needed today to overcome the climate crisis [41]. Further research is needed to examine opportunities for Etuapmumk (Two-Eyes Seeing Approach) integrating modern science and indigenous knowledge and cultural practices in environmental action [22]. Indigenous and traditional knowledge strategies are absent across all municipal plans, without as little as collaboration with tribal stakeholders. This gap underscores a critical area for future investigation of policies that could encourage the “Two-Eyed Seeing Approach”, collaboration with tribal entities, and holistic integration of western and indigenous frameworks of local climate action and adaptation plans. Further research is necessary to develop methodologies for effectively integrating indigenous perspectives, engaging tribal experts, and adopting policy making that honors culturally appropriate practices.

Future efforts are also needed to explore and develop mechanisms for enhancing the engagement of diverse stakeholder groups, including underrepresented BIPOC communities, in the planning process. This could include developing participatory planning frameworks that ensure all voices are heard and valued. There is a need for longitudinal studies to evaluate the implementation and outcomes of climate action and adaptation plans. Such research would provide insights into the effectiveness of different strategies over time, including those inspired by Indigenous knowledge. Future research should consider cross-comparative analyses between municipalities that have incorporated Indigenous and traditional knowledge in their climate plans and those that have not. This would offer empirical evidence of the impact of such integration on climate resilience and social equity.

4. Conclusions

Michigan's approach to climate action is notably fragmented, with only a select few cities having dedicated climate action and/or climate adaptation plans. These existing plans lack cohesion and uniformity, a consequence of the decentralized nature of climate governance in the United States. This results in a patchwork of strategies that may fail to address the environmental challenges facing the state and its regions effectively. To make meaningful progress towards climate goals, Michigan must bolster support and provide guidelines and peer-learning opportunities to harmonize local initiatives with statewide objectives.

Based on the interviews, there is a pronounced need for additional funding, training, and staffing support at the local level, especially for organizing meaningful community engagement and compensating community members for their time, which is often diverted from paid work and family time. Individual communities within the same city have unique needs that, if met with adequate resources and support, could lead to impactful changes at the local level, significantly benefiting the entire community. Another critical gap in current climate plans is the lack of DEI standards. This omission can reduce the effectiveness of climate action and adaptation strategies by not fully addressing the needs of all community members, especially the most vulnerable groups. The integration of DEI principles is vital, echoing findings from both national and international studies that advocate for an inclusive approach to environmental sustainability, one that acknowledges the diverse impacts of climate change on different demographic groups.

Recent federal and state initiatives have provided significant funding for climate action, presenting a valuable opportunity for cities. However, the cities' ability to fully capitalize on these funds is often hampered by insufficient infrastructure, expertise, or planning capacity. Enhancing the capabilities of local governments through training and resource provision is essential to ensure these funds are utilized effectively to enhance climate resilience.

Since the initial publications of the first climate plans by Michigan communities, there has been a notable improvement in the incorporation of diversity of stakeholders and equity concerns in their goals. This evolution indicates a growing recognition of the importance of these factors in effective climate planning. However, none of the municipal plans have included tribal stakeholders and cities could learn valuable lessons in coordinated climate adaptation planning from Native American tribes. These communities use a blend of traditional knowledge and modern science in their approaches, particularly through the "Two-Eyed Seeing" approach, which merges Indigenous and Western knowledge systems to create comprehensive and culturally sensitive solutions. There is no evidence of such collaborative practices in municipal plans, which is a missed opportunity for gaining deeper insights and fostering partnerships.

The insights from Michigan cities resonate with broader trends identified in the national and global scholarly literature on climate action planning [2]. The recognition of equity as a crucial component of climate action is gaining traction globally, with cities around the world increasingly seeking to integrate social justice into their climate strategies [42]. However, the translation of equity from a conceptual consideration to a concrete element of planning and implementation remains a significant challenge. Other studies emphasize the importance of meaningful community engagement, transparent decision-making processes, and targeted financial support to ensure equity considerations lead to actionable outcomes [16]. Moreover, the findings underline the importance of local contexts in shaping climate action plans, suggesting that one-size-fits-all solutions are unlikely to address the unique challenges faced by different communities effectively. As a large Midwestern state with relatively advanced local and state climate policies, Michigan is not unique in facing challenges revealed in our study. Most of our findings and recommendations are applicable nationwide. These recommendations are:

• Develop and enforce statewide guidelines that include DEI standards to ensure uniformity while allowing for adaptations to local conditions.
• Improve the capability of local governments to manage and implement climate strategies through comprehensive training and resources.
• Create forums for cities to share best practices and lessons learned, promoting a collaborative atmosphere that expedites the adoption of effective climate solutions.
• Establish formal collaboration frameworks between cities and tribal governments to ensure climate strategies are respectful and integrative of traditional ecological knowledge.
• Develop participatory planning processes that actively involve all community members, especially underrepresented groups, to ensure that diverse perspectives are considered in climate planning.
• Shift focus from planning to execution, with robust mechanisms to monitor and evaluate the impact of climate strategies, allowing for continuous feedback and improvement.

Our study highlights that while Michigan cities are advancing in their climate action and adaptation strategies, there is a substantial opportunity to improve these initiatives by more thoroughly integrating equity considerations and Indigenous knowledge. This approach not only broadens stakeholder engagement, including pivotal contributions from Indigenous communities, but also ensures that climate strategies are both comprehensive and culturally attuned. The "Tribal Climate Adaptation Menu" provides an essential framework for embedding Indigenous perspectives into climate planning. Municipalities that adopt this framework can achieve a more integrated approach to climate action. As municipal strategies evolve, incorporating traditional knowledge and practices can effectively address today’s environmental challenges while respecting and preserving Indigenous cultural heritage.