A New Frame Work of Thermodynamics, Artificial Energy Cycle and the Big Energy Cycle in the Universe

1. Traditional Thermodynamics (a Brief Description)

At present time, we spend electric energy (equivalent to work) every day. One joule electric energy, as we use it, converts to one joule waste heat. There are numerous similar processes that convert work to waste heat, such as various frictions between two objects, a stone falls down to the ground, wind or water whirling, air leakage of a car tire, even metal rusting, and so on, covering an extraordinarily immense scope.

One joule electric energy converts to one joule waste heat exactly. Energy is conserved in amount wherever and whenever. That is the first law of thermodynamics. It is a law of the universe.

Electric energy is useful energy, that means, it can be used to do work. Waste heat is useless energy, that means, it can never be used to do work again. All the energy source are useful energy that the nature grants us. Every piece of the energy source can be used to do work once only. That is the second law of thermodynamics. According to this law, all the practical thermodynamical processes are irreversible, resulting in the monotonical increase of the entropy of the universe.

The second law of thermodynamics is always valid for almost all the artificial and natural processes known by mankind. The final fate of the universe is, as predicted by Clausius, all the useful energy in the universe changes to waste heat, and radiates to the infinitive vast cosmic space, leading to the Heat Death. [1,2,3,4,5]

2. Thermodynamics of the Thermal Electrons in a Magnetic Field

In the history of physics there were a few outstanding people who doubted sharply and profoundly the absolute single-direction of all the physical processes described by the traditional second law of thermodynamics. Among them, James Clerk Maxwell was the most genius and brave one.

From 1866 to 1871, Maxwell immersed himself in the search for a way of how to convert waste heat back to work again. Limited by the historic level of science and technology of his era, he did not successfully find such an experiment. Nevertheless, he wrote down his thoughts and experiences during his exploration into his famous textbook Theory of Heat published in 1871. He hoped that in some future days this cherished wish of mankind would be realized by some inheritors.

In his exploration, Maxwell imagined to use a closed container filled up with air molecules. The container is divided by a separator into two parts, A and B, as shown in Figure 2. At the middle on the separator, there is a small door, which is controlled by an intellectual being.

Kelvin called Maxwell’s “intellectual being” jokingly a demon.

At the beginning, the air in the container is at a thermal equilibrium state. The temperature and pressure of the air are uniform everywhere in the container.

The demon has two typical work modes, described respectively as follows. In the first mode, the demon permits the faster molecules to pass the door from A to B, and the slower molecules to pass the door from B to A, as shown in Figure 3. Gradually, the temperature in A drops down and the one in B rises up. A temperature difference between A and B emerges, enabling a part of the internal energy of the air in the container to be used to do work.

In the second work mode, the demon permits only the molecules of A to pass the door to B, and does not permit the molecules of B to pass the door to A, as shown in Figure 4. Gradually, the pressure in A drops down and the pressure in B rises up. A pressure difference between A and B emerges, also enabling a part of the internal energy of the air in the container to be used to do work.

In the past about 150 years, many physicists and inventors, have made numerous efforts to design and execute various experiments, hoping to find such a demon.

However, they all failed.

The two authors of this paper, in the past several decades (X. Y. Fu since 1960, 65 years already; Z. T. Fu since 2000, 25 years already), following Maxwell’s steps, insisted on searching for such an entropy reducing experiment. They finally replaced Maxwell’s gas molecules in the container by the thermal electrons in a vacuum tube, which contains two identical and paralelll Ag-O-Cs thermal electron emitters. Figure 5 (1) and (2) show such an electron tube, FX8-24, used in one of the experments. The work function of Ag-O-Cs surface is only 0.8 eV, the least one among all known thermal electron emitters. They eject thermal electrons ceaselessly at room temperature (the so called “dark current” in the photomultipliers or night vision devices). The experiment can be performed with the whole closed circuit at a same room temperater, that is a great advantage. [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13] Of course, the anticipated output current and power are very weak.

When no magnetic field is applied to the tube, there is no output current, as shown in Figure 5 (2).

Then a static and uniform magnetic field (that is provided by one or a pair of stationary permanent magnets) is applied to the tube, bending the trajectories of the thermal electrons in the tube. For the first time, the direction of the magnetic field points into the paper, and it bends the trajectories of the thermal electrons as shown briefly in Figure 6 (1). A slight asymmetry (to left or to right) in the electrons’ thermal motion emerges. The number of electrons emitted from A and fall into B in each second is slightly greater than the one of the electrons emitted from B and fall into A. Emiter A losing some net electrons continuously, charges positively; and emitter B, receiving some net electrons continuously, charges negatively. A potential difference between A and B emerges, enabling the electron tube to output a current

For the second time, the direction of the static magnetic field is opposite, pointing out from the paper. The direction of the output current is also opposite, see Figure 6 (2).

If the magnetic field keeps constant for a long duration (that is easy, just keep the permanent magnet stationary in the duration), the electron tube can output a stable electric current and a stable electric power in the duration. For examples, 30 seconds, 3 minutes, 1 hour, 3 hours, and so on, as long as the performers wish.

As the electron tube ceaselessly outputs electric energy to do work on the exterior resistor with a power P = I²R, as shown in Figure 6, according to the first law of thermodynamics, the internal energy of the tube tends to decrease, though very slightly. And the temperature of the tube follows to drop down, also very slightly.

As the tube has cooled down slightly, it can spontaneously absorb the waste heat from the ambient air (that keeps at the constant room temperature) to compensate its energy loss due to the output of electric energy.

The experiment verifies that 1 joule waste heat is possible to convert back to 1 joule electric energy, without producing other effects, violating the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

The following is an experiment video of the vacuum tube FX8-24:

In this experiment, the whole closed circuit is desired to be kept at a same room temperature, say, t = 20^oC. However, the room the authors used to perform the experiment is not a fine thermostatic laboratory. It is just a common dwelling room. There are usually about 5^oC ~ 10^oC changes in temperature every day (24 hours). So, the temperature of the room is actually always changing, very slowly. And there is usually temperature difference distributed along the closed circuit, of the magnitude of several 0.1^o C. The temperatures changes at the different parts of the circuit mostly do not keep the same step. And, the temperatures at all the connections of two different metals along the closed circuit are usually not exactly equal each other, the general Peltier-Seeback effect along the whole closed circuit is usually not zero, very small, and fluctuates ceaselessly. That results in a weak background fluctuating current in the circuit.

The whole video lasts for 100 seconds.

(1) From t = 0 to t = 10 seconds

No magnetic field is applied to the vacuum tube in this duration. So, no real output current exists in the circuit, only a small fluctuating background current as shown in the video.

I_o ≈ (-8 ~ -14) ⅹ10^-16 A = (-0.8 ~ -1.4) fA,

(as shown in the simple drawing below)

(2) From t = 10 to t = 40 seconds

Move in a permanent magnet of 2 kg at t = 10 seconds, as shown in the video. There appears quickly a fundamental negative output current in the circuit, fluctuating slightly.

I ≈ (-140 ~ -190)ⅹ10^-16 A = (-14.0 ~ -19.0) fA,

(3) From t = 40 to t = 70 seconds

Reverse the direction of the magnetic field at t = 40 seconds, as shown in the video. The direction of the output current is also reversed. The output current becomes positive, fluctuating slightly.

I ≈ (+210 ~ +240)ⅹ10^-16 A = (+21.0 ~ +24.0) fA

(4) From t = 70 to t = 100 seconds

Restore the direction of the magnetic field to be negative again at t = 70 seconds, as shown in the video. The direction of the output current is also restored. The output current becomes negative again, fluctuating slightly.

I ≈ (-140 ~ -190)ⅹ10^-16 A = (-14.0 ~ -19.0) fA

Two clear photoes of the set up of the experiment

(1) The general set up of the experiment

(There is a compass on the top of the copper box, showing the direction of the magnetic field.)

(2) The arrangement within the copper shielding box

An electron vacuum tube, a resistor R = 150 MW (red, at the top), a long metal tube containing a thermometer probe（at right-below）, and some connection lines, etc.

3. Cosmos Thermodynamics

Most astrophysicists today, including the authors of this manuscript, believe that the present universe was produced by a big bang. [21,22,23,24]

The authors approve of the idea that the universe is gravitationally closed. All the matter and radiation are impossible to fly off the closed universe. A big bang followed by a big assemble forms a big cycle. All the matter and energy in the universe are involved in such a big cycle.

It is a thermodynamical exploration.

3.1. Re-Assemble of All the Matter That Scattered into the Cosmic Space by the Big Bang

The authors, like most of today’s astrophysicists, approve of the theory of the big bang established by Lemaitre, Hubble, Gamow, et al.

However, there is a major deficiency in the present theories of cosmology: Where did the primitive atom (Lemaitre’s terminology) of the big bang, come from?

Most people just avoid this problem.

The authors assert that this problem is a crucial one in the big bang theory of cosmology. It should not be avoided, absolutely.

The authors approve of the idea that the universe is gravitationally closed. All the matter, all the electromagnetic radiations and so on，are impossible to fly off the closed universe. They are involved in an extremely immense cycle in the closed universe: a big band followed by a big assemble forms a big cycle.

The big bang is only a special turning point in the big cycle.

However, for the first step, let us look back the current theory about the fundamental characteristics of the cosmic space.

According to the cosmology principle, adopt the Robertson Walker metric,

$$t-t_1={\displaystyle {\int }_{R(t_1)}^{R(t)}\frac{dR}{\sqrt{\Lambda (R)}}}$$

(1)

Einstein’s field equation and the equation of state, one can finally derive the relation between the cosmos scale factor R and time t, R = R(t), as shown by equation (1) and Figure 1.

R = R(t) has three different situations, depends on the values of the space curve sign k.

(1)k = + 1，the cosmic space is closed. All the matter, radiation and so on that scattered into the cosmic space by the big bang, may fly outward, getting farther and father. However, after reaching their individual far-most positions in the closed universe, all of them will fly back one after another towards the central region of the closed universe again, passing through the central region, shuttling in the closed universe ceaselessly, and so on.

(2) k = 0，the cosmic space is flat. In this situation, all the matter, radiation and so on that scattered into the cosmic space by the big bang can fly outward to the infinitely remote space, however, with a lower and lower kinetic energy, gradually approaching zero. They would never return back.

(3) k = -1，the cosmic space is open. In this situation, all the matter, radiation and so on that scattered into the cosmic space by the big bang just fly rather fast outward to the infinitely remote space. They will never return back.

The above descriptions of equation (1) and Figure 1 are correct, strict and profound, well recognized by most astrophysicists today. However, the theory is really abstract, and it is not easy to perceive clearly and to use it. The authors think that this extremely profound and mysterious theory might be enriched by a brief and intuitional explanation as follows.

Whether the universe is closed is determined by two factors:

(1) The total amount of the mass of the universe, that is the attractive factor. The mass mentioned here consists of common visible matter, dark matter, various electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos, and so on. There should be still some kinds of matter that are still totally unknown to mankind today. According to the present knowledge, the dark matter is 5 times of the visible matter, seems very important.

(2) The total amount of the energy of the big bang, that is the repulsive factor.

The two factors contend against each other, that determines the essential evolution of the universe.

If the first factor prevails over the second one, the universe is closed.

If the two factors are just “equivalent” each other, the universe is flat.

If the second factor prevails over the first one, the universe is open.

As have mentioned above, the authors approve of the first situation, k = + 1.

The authors also believe that in the middle part of the extraordinary and closed immense universe, naturally, there should be an extremely immense ocean of equilibrium thermal radiation at some essentially stable temperature. The microwave background radiation at 2.73K discovered in 1965 should just be this extremely immense heat ocean. It is intrinsic in the closed universe. It is not produced by the big bang. [25,26,27,28]

More than 2 × 10 ¹² galaxies produced in the big bang are now flying fiercely outward. Their individual immense kinetic energies derived from the big bang are converting to their individual potential energies. When the galaxies reach their individual far-most positions in the closed universe, they will return back, one after another, and fly towards the central region of the closed universe again. It is of course impossible for them to return back to the start point of the big bang at a same time. All these galaxies will rush through the central region with different tremendous kinetic energies and fly towards their individual far-most positions on the other sides of the central region. Then, also because of the gravitational attraction, they will slow down, and finally return back once again to the central region. In such a way, they will keep shuttling through the central region of the universe repeatedly, with different great amplitudes.

In every galaxy, there are numerous stars and many black holes. Every black hole, once formed, takes in all the matter and electromagnetic radiation that approach it, and gets larger. A black hole even annexes any celestial body that encounters with it, including annex another black hole.

The directions of the shuttling of the 2 × 10 ¹² galaxies are various in the 4p solid angle. Hence, the ceaseless shuttling offers numerous opportunities for the 2 ×10¹² galaxies to meet each other in the central region. And, the numerous and numerous various celestial bodies in all these galaxies (may be, more than 2 ×10²³ stars and other celestial bodies) will also have numerous chances to approach even meet each other.

Annexation happens whenever a black hole meets another celestial body in the shuttling. Especially, the black holes of all the galaxy cores (e.g., the core of the Milky Way) are extremely greater than the black holes with a mass of several or even more stars. They are extremely important in the general annexation processes in the universe.

After an extremely long period of shuttling and annexations, finally, the total number of the black holes and other celestial bodies in the universe will begin to decrease. The masses of the survived black holes will become larger and larger, meanwhile, their shuttling amplitudes become shorter and shorter. These two factors will greatly increase the chances of the survived black holes to encounter with the other shuttling celestial bodies. The general annexation processes in the whole universe will thus become faster and faster.

After an extremely long, long duration, eventually, all the matter within the closed universe will inevitably be assembled together to form an extraordinary immense central black hole，which is a rudiment of a new primitive atom for the next big bang.

In this matter assembling process, most of the original kinetic and potential energy of all the celestial bodies in the 2 ×10¹² galaxies are eventually concentrated into the central black hole, preserving directly a great amount of precious energy for the next big bang, without undergoing the process of entropy increase.

Black holes have an extremely important “collection mechanism” and “assembling mechanism”. Without their “collection mechanism” and “assembling mechanism”, the reassemble of all the matter is impossible to realize.

At that time, the picture of the universe will become very simple: In the infinitively vast universe, in its immense gravitationally closed central part, there is an extremely great and very dilute heat ocean at a temperature of about 2.73K. And at the center of the heat ocean, there is an extraordinary massive central black hole, which has an even more massive core containing all the real matter of the universe. The geometric picture of the universe at that time is rather similar to the one of a hydrogen atom.

The formation of the central black hole accomplishes the first preparation for the next big bang: the reassemble of all the real matter.

The next problem is, how to overcome the deadly obstruction of the second law of thermodynamics to recollect and assemble again the tremendously great amount of energy that has scattered into the vast cosmic space by the big bang and all its subsequent irreversible processes in the form of light and thermal radiation, and, finally mingle into the vast 2.73K heat ocean.

The black holes can accomplish this extremely difficult task. They, especially the final central blackhole, can eliminate the entropy that was produced during the big bang and all its subsequent processes. How much energy in the form of light and thermal radiation a big bang and all its subsequent processes have scattered into the extremely vast 2.73K heat ocean, how much energy in the form of 2.73K thermal radiation, will all the black holes, especially the extremely immense central black hole, recollect back from the heat ocean and assemble them again, leading to a new big bang. [26,27,28,29,30,31,32]

3.2. The 2.73K Background Radiation Was Not Produced by the Big Bang

3.2.1. The 2.73K Heat Ocean is an Intrinsic Existence in the Closed Universe

As is well known, in 1965, Penzias and Wilson unexpectedly discovered the 2.73K microwave background radiation coming from the remote space in all the directions. The microwave background radiation shows three fundamental characteristics: (1) uniform and stable, (2) excellent isotropic, (3) its spectrum coincides with Planck’s formula for the black body radiation at a temperature of about 2.73K. They are actually the same fundamental characteristics of the equilibrium thermal radiation in the cavity within a solid at the same temperature. Accordingly, what Penzias and Wilson discovered is an extremely immense and stable ocean of equilibrium thermal radiation at a temperature of 2.73K. [25]

The authors believe that it is just the intrinsic extremely immense heat ocean in the central part of the closed universe. It is not produced by the big bang.

The meaning of isotropic here is: at any point in the 2.73K heat ocean (and also at any point in the cavity within a solid at the same temperature), in any direction in the 4p solid angle, the intensity and spectrum of the thermal radiation are identical.

The 2.73K heat ocean is also a proof that the universe is closed. If the universe were not closed, the microwave radiation would have flied outward to the infinitively vast cosmic space, and would have not kept so excellently stable for so long a duration.

Many researchers had different opinion from ours. They believed that the microwave background radiation at 2.73K was produced by the big bang.

The authors, also accepted the current theory that after the big bang, the primitive fireball expanded very quickly. The interior of the expanding fire ball was at extremely high temperature, filled up with plasma and thermal radiation. The thermal radiation exchanged heat with the electrons and protons of the plasma ceaselessly, and hence kept in the same temperature with the plasma all the time. As the fireball expanded ceaselessly, its temperature decreased step by step quickly. In this duration, the plasma was actually opaque for the thermal radiation. The thermal radiation was constrained in the expanding fireball. They could not fly off the expanding fireball.

About 3.8ⅹ10⁵ years after the big bang, when the interior temperature of the expanding primitive fire ball dropped down to about 3000K, the electrons and protons in the plasma combined to become hydrogen atoms. The neutral hydrogen atoms no longer exchanged heat with the thermal radiation. The fireball decoupled, the interior of the fireball became transparent for the thermal radiation. All the photons of the decoupled thermal radiation within the fire ball got free, and started immediately to fly off the fire ball at light speed in all the directions to the exterior extremely vast space. That is obviously a free ejection.

The decoupled 3000K thermal radiation ejected freely into the vast space at light speed, getting farther and farther. However, because the universe is closed, the 3000K decoupled thermal radiation could not fly to the infinitively far space. Like the galaxies’ shuttling（that we have discussed above）, after reaching their far most positions in the closed universe, the outward flying decoupled thermal radiation should turn back to the central part of the universe again, and then kept shuttling in the closed universe with extraordinarily greater amplitudes, meanwhile, becoming more and more dispersive. Then, after an extremely long, long relaxation time, through exchanging heat with the cosmic atoms, molecules, dusts and rocks (they are all at the temperature of 2.73K) in the metagalaxy region, the shuttling thermal radiation should finally mingle into the extremely vast 2.73K heat ocean. The vast 2.73K heat ocean is the final destination of the emitted decoupled thermal radiation.

(For more details about the free ejection of the degenerated thermal radiation, read the appendix A of this article, please.)

However, there are a part of the researchers who alleged that, after flied off the decoupled fire ball, the thermal radiation kept “expanding adiabatically” for an extremely long time, and expanded finally to the 2.73K microwave background equilibrium thermal radiation of today. They believe, the 2.73K heat ocean is still expanding outward adiabatically at present.

They speak of an “adiabatic expansion”. What do they mean by this terminology ?

The initial state of the “adiabatic expansion” was an equilibrium thermal radiation at 3000K in the decoupled fire ball, and the final state (i.e., the present state) of it is an equilibrium thermal radiation at 2.73K, occupying an extraordinarily immense cosmic space. Then, how about the numerous intermediate states? Were they all at thermal equilibrium states? That is a difficult problem for these researchers to answer.

If all the intermediate states were all equilibrium states, the expanding process should have been a quasistatic process, which is extremely slow. That is obviously not true. All the 3000K decoupled photons are travelling outward freely at light speed. There is no anything like the cylinder piston system or something else to control or limit the outward ejection at light speed of the decoupled photons. The “expansion” in was just a free isotropic ejection at light speed of the 3000K decoupled photons to the infinitively vast space, not an “expansion” of the thermal radiation within any container.

If all the intermediate states were not equilibrium states, how could the scattering decouple thermal radiation that flied outward freely at light speed finally changed suddenly to a 2.73K equilibrium state?

Hence the authors claim here again，the 2.73K microwave background radiation is not the afterglow of the decoupled fire ball. The 2.73K background radiation itself is an intrinsic existence in the closed universe, an extremely immense and stable heat ocean. It existed before the big bang. It exists now. It will exit in the future. It was certainly not produced by the big bang.

3.2.2. The Extraordinarily Immense 2.73 K Heat Ocean Itself

Now, let us surmise briefly the structure and picture of the 2.73K heat ocean itself.

As a preparation, let us first make a calculation of the mass density of the 2.73K equilibrium thermal radiation.

From Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, the radiation intensity from the surface of a black body (the energy emitted in unit time from unit area of a black body surface at a given temperature) at T = 2.73K is (Steven-Boltzmann’s law)

$$J=\sigma T^4=3.15\times {10}^{-6}j{s}^{-1}{m}^{-2}$$

(2)

As is well known, the relation between the radiation intensity from the surface of a black body j and the energy density of the equilibrium thermal radiation in a solid cavity at the same temperature u is

$$J={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}cu,$$

(3)

Hence, at T = 2.73K, the energy density of the immense heat ocean is

$$u={\displaystyle \frac{4}{c}}J=4.26\times {10}^{-14}J{m}^{-3}$$

(4)

And, the mass density of the thermal radiation in the heat ocean is,

$$\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{u}{c^2}}=4.73\times {10}^{-31}kg/m^3$$

(5)

Now, let us imagine to have a look at the picture of the 2.73K heat ocean. The whole heat ocean in the central part of the closed universe should be a very large sphere, as shown in Figure 2. Our metagalactic region should be located at the central part of the vast heat ocean, represented by a very small circle.

Containing the metagalactic region and within the radius of R₁, is the T = 2.73K region, as briefly shown by the blue part in Figure 2. Astronomic observations show that our earth, our Milky way, our metagalaxy are all immersed in an immense heat ocean at a temperature of 2.73K.

Then, from R₁ to R₂, is the thermal radiation decaying region, as roughly and briefly shown by the light-blue part in Figure 2; the corresponding temperature falls down gradually from 2.73K to 0K,

$$T=T(R)$$

(6)

which corresponding to a roughly similar but much more fast decaying mass density,

$$\rho =\rho (R)$$

(7)

for r is essentially proportional to T ⁴, as shown by (2) - (5).

Finally, out of R₂, is the infinitively vast empty space, the infinitively vast cosmic vacuum.

In the 2.73K region, and, also in the thermal radiation decaying region, all the outward flying photons undergo red shift. When they reached their individual possible far most sites in the closed universe, they will turn back and fly towards the central region of the heat ocean again, undergoing blue shift. Passing through the central region, the blue shifted photons will fly to their individual far most sites on the other side of the central region, undergoing red shift again. In such a way, all the photons will keep shuttling ceaselessly in the various directions in the 4p solid angle, all with extraordinarily great amplitudes, and the whole closed heat ocean keeps fundamentally stable and equilibrium.

The heat ocean is extraordinarily immense, and its mass may be extraordinarily great, which might also contribute considerably to the gravitational close of the universe.

3.2.3. The Big Bang and All Its Subsequent Processes Are All Extraordinarily Great Irreversible Processes, Resulting in Immense Increase of Entropy in the Universe

(1）The big band is a tremendously great explosion. Like a supernova, it directly scattered extraordinarily tremendous amount of light and thermal radiation into the space. These light and thermal radiation cannot fly off the closed universe. They will keep shuttling in the closed universe ceaselessly with extremely great amplitudes. After an extremely long relaxation time, they finally mingle into the 2.73K heat ocean, too, increasing the entropy of the universe.

(2）As have discussed above, about 3.8×10⁵ years after the big bang, the interior temperature of the expanding primitive fire ball dropped down to about 3000K. The diameter of the decoupled fire ball was about 10⁶ light years, having an immense volume similar to the volume of the Milky Way. It was at a very high temperature of 3000K, having an extraordinary immense total amount of energy in the form of light and thermal radiation. At that time the whole fire ball became transparent suddenly. All these light and thermal radiation got free, started immediately to fly off the decoupled fire ball at the speed of light in all the directions, and travelled into the farther extremely vast space. Then, because the universe is closed, they should also keep shuttling in the closed universe with extraordinarily great amplitudes, after a long relaxation time, also mingle into the 2.73K heat ocean, increasing the energy of the heat ocean, increasing the entropy of the universe.

(3) In the further expansion of the fireball, all the real matter (mainly hydrogen and helium) of an immense amount within it changed into numerous nebulae, next changed into even more galaxies, and then into numerous and numerous stars and other celestial bodies. All these processes were also irreversible, sending immense amounts of light and thermal radiation into the heat ocean, producing immense entropy, too.

(4) Then in a very long period, there formed early or late, extremely numerous and numerous stars in all the galaxies. Like the sun, most of these stars have averagely a lifetime of about 10¹⁰ years (actually longer or shorter), ejecting ceaselessly light and thermal radiation into the vast space due to the energy produced in their interior nuclear fusions of hydrogen and helium. All these light and thermal radiation also scatter into the closed universe, and finally mingle into the 3K heat ocean.

And so on.

All the processes described in the above paragraphs deliver immense amount of light and thermal radiation into the vast 2.73K heat ocean, increasing the entropy in the closed universe tremendously.

According to Clausisus’ famous prediction, all these processes leading the universe eventually to a miserable state of Heat Death.

3.3. The Re-Collection and Assemble of Energy from the 2.73K Heat Ocean by the Black Holes, Leading to a New Big Bang

In the heat ocean, the 2.73K thermal equilibrium radiation travels everywhere randomly and ceaselessly at the speed of light. Every black hole in the metagalaxy region is immersed in the vast 2.73K heat ocean, so it takes in the 2.73K thermal radiation at the speed of light from all the directions since its birth and throughout its long, long lifetime. Meanwhile, a black hole never delivers any thermal radiation to its exterior. Such a process is distinctly a single way collection of the thermal energy from the extremely cold 2.73K heat ocean to the black hole that is at an extremely high (latent) temperature, as it has an immense amount of internal energy. The process apparently violates the Clausius’s statement of the second law of thermodynamics. Black holes are natural demons in the universe.

(Let us see a metaphor: A common bomb contains a great amount of chemical energy, that can do a great amount of work. From the point of view of the second law of thermodynamics, the bomb is equivalent to be at a latent extremely high temperature.)

Let us see 3 typical examples of black holes of different grades.

3.3.1. A Black Hole with a Mass 10 Times of the Sun

As shown in Figure 4 (a)，the mass of this black hole is

M₁ = 10 M_ = 10 × (2×10³⁰) = 2 ×10³¹ kg

(8)

Its Schwarzschild radius is

$$R_1={\displaystyle \frac{2G{M}_1}{c{}_2}}=2.96\times {10}^4\approx 30km.$$

(9)

When this M₁ = 10 M_ black hole was formed, most of the matter and energy of its original star collapsed down into the new formed black hole. The great amount of the gravitational potential energy of the matter of the original star first converts to kinetic energy and heat step by step, move inward, and finally concentrates into the small new formed black hole. So, there is a great amount of internal energy in the black hole that is now highly concentrated in a very small volume. The newly formed black hole can also be regarded to be equivalent at some extremely high latent temperature, see Figure 4 (a).

The volume and surface area of the event horizon of the black hole of the M₁ = 10 M_ are

V₁ = (4p/3) R₁³ = 1.13×10¹⁴m³

(10)

S₁ = 4pR₁² = 1.13×10¹⁰m

(11)

respectively, as shown in Figure 4 (a).

For comparison（mainly to compare their temperature）, imagine a sphere in the 2.73K heat ocean of a same volume V₁ and a same surface area S₁ as shown in Figure 4 (b),

V₁′ = V₁ = 1.13×10¹⁴m³,

(12)

S₁′ = S₁ = 4pR₁′² = 1.13×10¹⁰m²,

(13)

The internal energy of the 2.73K thermal radiation in the spherical volume V₁′ is

U₁′= u V₁′= 4.20×10^-14×1.13×10¹⁴ = 4.75J.

(14)

The (latent) temperature of the M₁ = 10 M_ black hole (V₁) is extremely high. But it does not emit any thermal radiation to the surrounding extremely cold 2.73K heat ocean. Contrarily, it just takes in the thermal radiation at the speed of light in all the directions from the extremely cold 2.73K heat ocean ceaselessly with a power

P_in′ = sT⁴4pR₁′ ² = 3.15×10^-6×1.13×10¹⁰ = 3.56×10⁴J/s

(15)

In each second, suppose the M₁ = 10 M_ black hole takes in the 2.73K thermal radiation of a volume N₁V₁′ from the heat ocean, the number N₁ should be

N₁ = P₁ / U₁′ = 3.56×10⁴ ÷ 4.75 = 7494 ≈ 7500

(16)

In one day, the corresponding number of the energy U₁′ collected from the heat ocean by the M₁ = 10 M_ black hole is

N_day = 86400×7500 =6.5×10⁸

(17)

In one year, the corresponding number is

N_year =365×6.5×10⁸ = 2.37×10¹¹

(18)

In one million years, it is

N ₁₀⁶ _years = 2.37×10¹¹×10⁶ = 2.37×10¹⁷

(19)

One million years is a twinkle of an eye in the long, long lifetime of a black hole.

We conclude that, the 2.73K thermal radiation pouring ceaselessly at the speed of light from all the directions into the M₁ = 10 M_ black hole is also a typical process of spontaneous heat transfer from an extremely low temperature region (at 2.73K) to an extremely high latent temperature region (the black hole). Such a unidirectional process is apparently in contradiction to the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

Black holes are natural demons in the universe.

Numerous and numerous such black holes in all the millions over millions of galaxies ceaselessly absorb a very great general amount of thermal radiation from the vast 2.73K heat ocean throughout their individual extremely long, long lifetimes. That is a great process of energy collection, also a great entropy reducing process.

3.3.2. The Central Black Hole of a Galaxy

Such a black hole usually has approximately a mass of about 10¹⁰ times of the mass of M₁ (actually may be much greater or much smaller), i.e.,

M₂ ≈ 10¹⁰×M₁ = 10¹⁰×10 M_ ,

(20)

The radius of its Schwarzschild sphere is

R₂ ≈ 10¹⁰×R₁ = 10¹⁰×30km

(21)

and the area of its spherical surface of event horizon S₂ is 10²⁰ times of the area of S₁. It absorbs the 2.73K thermal radiation from the heat ocean at a much greater power,

P_{2 in} = sT⁴4pR₂²= (3.15×10^-6×1.13×10¹⁰) ×10²⁰ = 3.56×10²⁴ J/s.

(22)

If we still take U₁′= u V₁′ = 4.75J as an energy counting unit, the corresponding number N₂ of the energy absorbed by M₂ in each second is

N₂ = P_2in / U₁′ = 3.56×10²⁴ J / 4.75J = 7.50×10²³

(23)

The thermal radiation collected by the M₂ black hole from the heat ocean in each second is extremely higher than the M₁ = 10 M_ black hole. The process reduces a much greater amount of entropy of the universe in each second.

The total rate of the collections of energy from the heat ocean by all the numerous and numerous black holes of galaxy cores in the whole metagalaxy region is of course tremendously greater, and the corresponding decrease of the entropy of the universe is also extraordinarily greater.

As all these above mentioned two kinds of black holes unite step by step (together with all the other celestial bodies in all the galaxies) through shuttling and annexations to form eventually the central black hole, they should carry all the energy that they have collected from the 2.73K heat ocean in their individual long, long lifetimes to enter the central black hole.

3.3.3. The Central Black Hole of the Universe

The central black hole contains all the real matter of the whole universe, having an extraordinarily immense amount of mass. Its radius of event horizon is proportional to its mass. The area of its Schwarzschild sphere is proportional to the square of its radius. Hence, it has an extraordinarily immense spherical area. It will absorb the 2.73K thermal radiation from the extremely vast 2.73K heat ocean ceaselessly from all the directions at the speed of light. Hence, the power of its absorption of the thermal radiation from the immense heat ocean will be extraordinarily great. The internal energy of the central black hole will rise extraordinarily fast, monotonically.

Notice please, at that time, all the real matter in the universe have already been concentrated into the central black hole. There will be no longer any new mass of real matter to fall into the central black hole. The average energy possessed by per unit mass of the real matter in the central black hole will just rise and rise, extremely quickly and monotonically. The interior matter should undergo a series of endothermic changes. By the end of all these endothermic changes, the energy possessed by per unit mass of the interior matter of the central black hole will reach an extremely high level. The authors assert that the matter in such an extreme state is closely identical to the “primitive matter” or “ylem” described by Gamow et al in their theory of the thermal big bang.

Nevertheless, the central black hole will continue to absorb energy extremely fast from the heat ocean ceaselessly. Its total internal energy will continue to increase. That means, its internal repulsive factor will continue to increase, very fast and monotonically. Such a unidirectional process should not go on and on without an end, when a threshold value of the repulsive factor is reached and exceeded, a new big bang breaks out!

So far, we have accomplished the description of an extraordinarily big cycle of matter and energy in the universe. A big bang followed by a big assemble forms a big cycle. [26,27,28,29,30,31,32]

4. Conclusion: A New Theoretical System of Thermodynamics

In the above discussions, we have first described and demonstrated by an experiment video of a special test of an artificial entropy reducing process, the experiment of thermal electrons in a magnetic field. It is very interesting and enlightening. It means a very tiny cycle of energy in the macroscopic world, challenging the traditional second law of thermodynamics sharply and profoundly.

We also discussed the extraordinarily immense big cycle of matter and energy in the closed universe. A big bang and a big assemble constitute a big cycle. Entropy can either increase or decrease. In general, the increase and decrease of entropy in a big cycle match each other. The entropy of the universe would never eventually reach a maximum value, Clausius’s “Heat Death” is an excessive anxiety.

Hence, the old theoretical system of thermodynamics needs to be reformed. We put forward a new theoretical system for thermodynamics as follows, with the first law keeps unchanged, and the second law changes considerably.

(1) The first law of thermodynamics is energy conservation.

Energy is conserved in amount, wherever and whenever. It is a law of the universe.

The total amount of energy of the universe keeps constant (Clausius’s word).

And so on.

(2) The second law of thermodynamics is energy circulation.

All the matter and energy in the closed universe are involved in a big cycle. The black holes are natural demons in the universe. Entropy can either increase or decrease. In a big cycle, the increase and decrease of entropy match each other.

The new theoretical system of thermodynamics is obviously different from the old one, especially about the second law.

Nevertheless, the traditional second law of thermodynamics should not thus be discarded totally. It is still valid in almost all of the numerous ordinary thermodynamical processes that we meet in our life, work, and ordinary research.

The situation is rather similar to the one in mechanics.

Einstein’s special relativity reveals profoundly that Newton’s mechanics is no longer valid when the speed of an object is very high, approaching the speed of light. However, for almost all the practical mechanical problems we meet in our life, work and ordinary research, Newton’s mechanics is still valid. It is still accurate to an extremely high extent.

Similarly, for all the numerous ordinary thermodynamical processes we meet in our life, work and ordinary research, the traditional second law of thermodynamics is still valid, covering an extremely wide scope. Almost all the practical thermodynamical processes are irreversible, and entropy can only increase, never decrease.

About Entropy

Like energy, entropy is also a real equivalent quantity in physics. It has many different forms, for examples, heat temperature quotient entropy, volume expanding entropy, phase change entropy, chemical entropy, and so on. They are equivalent each other.

Entropy is conserved in all reversible processes. This may be regarded as a thermodynamical theorem. The theorem provides a way to find the credible and accurate equivalent relations between the different forms of entropy. A certain amount of entropy in one form can convert through a reversible process to any other form of entropy, obviously, the two quantities of entropies are equivalent each other.

However, unlike energy that keeps its amount unchanged where ever and whenever, entropy tends to increase spontaneously in numerous and numerous ordinary processes that we meet in our life, work and ordinary researches. The behaviors of energy and entropy are very differen.

Fortunately, entropy can also decrease in the big cycle of matter and energy in the closed universe. We need not to worry about the Heat Death as predicted by Clausius.

The special artificial process, the experiment of thermal electrons in a magnetic field, results in some very tiny decrease of entropy, forming a very tiny cycle of energy in the macroscopic world. Although it is a very tiny process, its output current is already a macroscopic direct current. Such a peculiar and interesting experiment challenges sharply and profoundly the traditional second law of thermodynamics in the macroscopic world.

Some adding words

(1) The universe is extraordinary immense and mysterious. There are so many, many things in the universe still keep totally unknown and mysterious to mankind. This article just provides a tentative thermodynamical exploration of the big cycle of the matter and energy in the closed universe. Mistakes and deficiencies are of course inevitable in such a primary exploration. Any criticism and suggestion to this article are warmly welcome.

(2) In our discussion, we claimed that the black holes are natural Maxwell’s demon in the universe. A black hole does not release any energy to its exterior. It just ceaselessly takes in the thermal radiation of the 2.73K heat ocean in all the directions at the speed of light, reducing the entropy of the heat ocean, reducing the entropy of the universe.

Some people might argue that, according to Bekenstein, the “area entropy” of the event horizon of a black hole should increase when it takes in the 2.73K thermal radiation from the 2.73K heat ocean, and the general change of entropy for the process is still an increasing one, and so on.

The authors claim here that Bekenstein’s “area entropy” of a black hole is a wrong idea. Actually, there are several other serious physical mistakes in Bekenstein and Hawking’s “black hole thermodynamics”. Limited by space, we do not discuss these problems in this article. We have another article On Bekenstein and Hawking’s Black Hole Thermodynamics, discussing these problems in details. The article can be found through the Preprints ID: preprints-166919.

The pdf file of this article cannot demonstrate our experiment video of the tube FX8-24. The readers who are interested in the experiment video can find it through the Reference [15] of this article, or directly to preprints 109425.