Technological Constraints on Electric Commercial Aviation: Evaluating Battery and Power Electronics Limitations

1. Introduction

In modern society, air travel plays an important role in connecting people and economies across large distances. However, there is increasing pressure to make the aviation industry more sustainable, as air travel contributes largely to greenhouse gas emissions (Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders, 2023). To combat this, researchers are developing electric aircraft as a more sustainable method of reducing emissions. While electric aircraft have looked promising early on, starting them commercially is a far more challenging task, as there are various technological challenges that remain before the widespread adoption of electric aircraft.

Unlike conventional aircrafts, electric aircraft depends entirely on electrical systems for their propulsion, which makes the performance of these systems extremely crucial. Battery technologies are one of the most significant challenges here, as they must balance energy storage, weight, safety, and operational reliability. In addition to batteries, power electronic systems are responsible for the efficient management, conversion, and control of electrical energy throughout the aircraft, which makes them another important aspect. These technologies ultimately come together to determine the feasibility of an electric aircraft and whether they can eventually be in commercial use or not.

As the need for balancing innovation with sustainability increases, it is becoming important to understand these systems in order to reduce the environmental impact. Aviation, however, is one of the hardest fields to decarbonize. This is because commercial flights require extremely high energy density (Green Carbon, 2026), and although governments and private companies are investing heavily in electric aircraft technologies (Howe & Abouelazm, 2026), if batteries and power electronics remain insufficient, electric commercial aircraft may not become widespread.

These challenges raise several questions about the practicality of electric aircraft for commercial use, and as a result, this paper investigates the research question “To what extent do current battery and power-electronics technologies limit the widespread adoption of electric commercial aircraft?” This article further evaluates the extent to which these technological systems constrain the commercial use of fully electric aircraft and focus mainly on existing battery and power electronics technologies and their capabilities. This paper aims to determine the significance of batteries and power electronics technologies in limiting widespread use of electric aircraft. A critical review and evaluation of the current capabilities of battery and power electronics systems, along with considering how future innovations can tackle current limitations and challenges to make commercial adoption of electric aircraft more achievable are compiled to uncover the extent to which current technological systems restrict the adoption of electric commercial aircraft.

2. Battery Parameters That Impact the Performance and Durability of Electric Aircraft

Batteries are crucial energy storage systems for electric vehicles. They are fundamental in advancing eco-friendly transportation systems and further serve as vital energy storage devices, where they convert chemical energy into electrical energy, enable the consistent supply of electricity, and ensure a reliable power source. Furthermore, batteries function as the heart of electric vehicles, replacing conventional fuel tanks, where they power the engines, allowing them to function without relying on traditional fossil fuels (Rahman & Alharbi, 2024). Battery technology is vital in the transition towards aircraft sustainability. Currently, although battery research and development in electric vehicles has been marked by the development of high-capacity, durable, and fast-charging batteries, the aviation sector poses its own unique challenges. As the aviation industry moves towards electric vehicles, the demand for high-performance batteries is steadily intensifying (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Overall, the literature, although approaching the topic from different perspectives, ranging from the reduction of emissions to creating better electrical propulsion systems, consistently concludes that battery technologies will be one of the key factors in the transition to sustainable, electric aircraft in the upcoming years, which makes them an important area of research (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025; Rahman & Alharbi, 2024; Suárez et al., 2024).

2.1. Impact of Energy Density on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

Energy density is one of the most important characteristics for the performance of a fully electric aircraft. The energy density of a battery, measured in Wh/kg, shows how much energy the device can store per mass or volume. In aircraft, the gravimetric energy density (energy stored per unit mass) is a crucial metric in order to determine the viability of a propulsion system. This is due to the fact that, unlike ground vehicles, aircraft have strict weight limits, and every added kilogram affects their performance. In aviation, energy density directly impacts the range, payload capacity, and overall efficiency (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025), and as a result, it has become one of the most important topics in the research around electric aviation.

Recent literature around this topic has consistently identified energy density as the main obstacle to the widespread adoption of battery-powered aircraft. Several studies have identified the limited energy density of batteries as the main challenge because it directly affects aircraft range, overall performance and efficiency, and payload capacity (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025; Suárez et al., 2024; Buvarp & Leijon, 2026; Ningappa et al., 2025). While these studies reached a similar conclusion overall, they chose to emphasize different aspects affected by limited energy density. For instance, Buvarp & Leijon (2026) mentioned the effect on the size and range of electric aircraft; Suárez et al., (2024) talked about how batteries in aircraft must be kept as light as possible while ensuring an adequate energy density to reduce overall aircraft weight and carry a larger payload. Other studies also quantified the significant difference in energy density between the current lithium-ion batteries (Ningappa et al., 2025; Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025), which are the most commonly used batteries in electric aircraft development due to their relatively higher energy density in combination with their lightweight construction (Binbin, 2024), and the jet fuel used in conventional aircraft, further showcasing why long-haul fully electric flights are impractical with current technologies.

Overall, all the studies indicate how important energy density is in determining the commercial feasibility of fully electric aircraft. Improvements in battery energy density are crucial, as it influences factors including aircraft weight, payload capacity, range, and overall efficiency. To better uncover these limitations, it is important to compare the performance of current lithium-ion batteries with conventional jet fuel in detail. As both lithium-ion batteries and jet fuel are energy sources for propulsion, comparing them is important to evaluate the practicality and overall impacts of replacing traditional fuel with battery-powered systems and, by extension, determine whether fully electric aircraft can be used in commercial aviation.

2.1.1. A Comparison Between Lithium-Ion Batteries and Conventional Jet Fuel

Lithium-ion batteries are currently the most widely used rechargeable batteries in electric aircraft because of various advantages in comparison to other batteries, including energy density, lighter weight and long cycle life. Despite these advantages, commercial aircraft rely heavily on conventional jet fuel, and this is mainly due to its energy density, which is extremely high, often more than 40 times more energy-dense compared to battery technologies. Whereas lithium-ion batteries have a much lower energy density, the difference is wide enough that it prevents batteries from being able to provide the required energy for long-distance flights. A comparison of the gravimetric energy density of lithium-ion batteries, stated to be between 150 and 260 Wh/kg, with that of jet fuel, at 12,000 Wh/kg (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025; Ningappa et al., 2025). This significant difference between the energy density of lithium-ion batteries and aircraft fuel has a wider impact on overall aircraft design and operations. Because batteries are able to store considerably less energy per unit mass, this leads to electric aircraft often needing extremely large and heavy battery systems to achieve the same level of flight performance. Additionally, jet fuel is consumed and used throughout the flight and gradually reduces the overall weight of the aircraft (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Because each kilogram of the battery stores less energy than the same mass of jet fuel is able to store, electric aircraft need a much bigger battery system in order to provide sufficient energy for the flight. However, installing a large battery system at that scale contributes significantly to a change in the aircraft’s overall mass, which leads to structural and performance challenges that have not been encountered in the past with conventional aircraft. Although studies talk about this point from various perspectives, they consistently agree that battery weight is one of the main consequences of the low energy density of existing battery technologies. For instance, (Suárez et al., 2024) highlights the importance of reducing the overall weight of the aircraft through lighter batteries in order to be able to carry a larger payload, while (Adu-Gyamfi & Good, 2022) emphasizes the range limitations that come with heavier battery technology. Overall, this increased battery mass has several consequences in aircraft performance, specifically in relation to its range, payload capacity, passenger capacity, and overall aircraft efficiency.

2.2. Impact of Battery Weight on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

One of the most significant consequences of increased battery weight in electric aircraft is the reduction in aircraft range. As the mass of the aircraft increases, more lift needs to be generated in order to maintain flight, which requires a greater power output from the propulsion system, which in turn increases overall energy consumption. The large difference in energy density between jet fuel and lithium-ion batteries, 12,000 Wh/kg and approximately 330 Wh/kg respectively, results in jet fuel having approximately 19 to 27 times greater specific energy than lithium-ion batteries for the same weight (Storm, 2025). The consequences of increased battery weight are not confined to only aircraft range, as the additional weight further reduces the payload that an aircraft can carry. Since aircraft have strict weight limitations, a greater proportion of the weight being allocated for the energy storage system means that there is less weight available for the passengers, weight, and any other payload. This was discussed in a research paper, which states that in order to reduce the overall weight of the craft and carry a larger payload, the batteries should be kept as light as possible, while still having an adequate energy density (Suárez et al., 2024). Similarly, another group suggested that the low energy density of batteries directly limits payload capacity, and the weight of the batteries reduces the payload available in both fully electric aircraft and hybrid aircraft (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Buvarp & Leijon (2026) also identified a low-weight ESS (Energy storage system) as more desirable, as a heavier system means less weight available for the payload.

The impact of battery limitations becomes even more apparent as the size and passenger capacity of the aircraft increases (Suárez et al., 2024). The study revealed that a mean specific energy of 600 Wh/kg-pack would be required to power a regional aircraft with a range of 500 nautical miles and a passenger capacity between 30-75 passengers. For a narrow-body aircraft with a range of 1000 nautical miles, the mean specific energy increases to 820 Wh/kg-pack. The challenge becomes clear at the extreme, where a wide body aircraft with a range of more than 2000 nautical miles and a passenger capacity of 200-400 passengers requires a mean specific energy of approximately 1280 Wh/kg-pack. These figures clearly underline how increasing passenger capacity and range leads to a rapid increase in battery requirements. Therefore, smaller regional aircraft are better suited to use current battery technologies, rather than large commercial aircraft. This limitation can also be seen in existing electric aircraft, wherein Buvarp & Leijon (2026) highlighted the Pipistrel Velis Electro, the only fully electric aircraft to have received full type certification at the time of the study. It was a two-seater aircraft with an endurance of roughly 50 minutes. Although the development of this aircraft showed that fully electric aircraft are possible, current battery technologies still place significant limitations on the size and capacity of these aircraft, which makes them unsuitable for many commercial applications.

In addition to affecting range, payload, and passenger capacity, battery weight can also impact the overall aircraft efficiency. A research study showed that aircraft mass and power requirements are very evident during takeoff and landing, which require high levels of power to balance the aircraft (Barrera et al., 2022). This becomes a major challenge for electric aircraft, as the batteries needed to store sufficient energy also add sufficient weight to the aircraft. An analysis revealed that fully electric aircraft can lead to aircraft takeoff weight being heavier by a factor of between 1.7 to 3.8, which clearly showcases the direct consequence of using current battery technology (Ningappa et al., 2025). This consequence of battery weight is further seen in the current operational limits of fully electric aircraft, as Ningappa et al. (2025) further identified that existing fully electric aircraft are generally restricted to a short flight distance of between 50 and 200 miles. These weight limitations have also led to designers investigating new aircraft layouts such as distributed electric propulsion and blended wing-body designs in order to maximize the aircraft’s efficiency (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Overall, the literature emphasizes that battery mass, along with affecting energy storage systems, also creates challenges with aircraft efficiency and performance.

2.3. Impact of Battery Charging Time on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

In addition to battery weight, the time required to charge current battery technology is another important limitation to consider in the context of fully electric commercial aircraft. Commercial aircraft are expected to undergo multiple flights every day, and longer charging periods, or turnaround times, can greatly reduce flight frequency. The true challenge can be seen in estimates for larger electric aircraft. These could require energy storage systems with capacities between 18.9 and 28 MWh, which could require between 5 and 7.5 hours of charging time with MCS (Megawatt charging system). This emphasizes an important challenge, as a charging period lasting several hours is impractical and does not meet the expectations of modern aircraft turnaround times. Increasing the charging power to reduce these times, however, is not a straightforward solution, as it can lead to increased concerns with thermal management, battery degradation, and safety (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). Another solution to the problem would be battery swapping, which would involve swapping out depleted batteries with fully charged ones, leading to shorter turnaround times, estimated to be between 5 and 30 minutes. This makes it significantly faster than charging the battery while inside the aircraft. However, this solution also comes with challenges, as it requires major infrastructure developments, along with introducing problems related to battery certification and the cost of managing spare, additional batteries. Overall, the literature emphasizes how current battery charging systems pose another barrier to the widespread adoption of fully electric commercial aircraft, especially when considering the operational use of such aircraft.

2.4. Impact of Battery Degradation on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

Another important limitation of current lithium-ion batteries is long-term degradation, as they gradually lose performance as they age. According to a study, one of the main reasons for this degradation is the repeated charging and discharging of batteries (Rahman & Alharbi, 2024). Each cycle causes both physical and chemical changes in the battery. Over time, these reduce the batteries’ capacity, as well as their overall performance. Over time, the reduction in battery capacity leads to a lesser amount of usable energy available. In turn, this can further lead to reduced energy efficiency and safety hazards such as thermal runway. Several sources have emphasized that the problem of battery degradation is critical in aviation, as the batteries must perform well at high-altitudes, which have low temperatures and low pressure (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026; Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). In particular, Pattanayak & Mavris (2025) pointed out that low temperatures can increase the internal resistance of lithium-ion batteries. This leads to a reduced power output as well as faster deterioration of the batteries’ capacity. It also results in a shorter life cycle for the battery. Additionally, aircraft takeoff has high power requirements, with discharge rates of 3-5C. This generates a significant amount of additional heat, which can further contribute to accelerated battery degradation. Several studies also identified how these effects ultimately come together to shorten batteries’ lifespans, which increases the frequency of battery replacement and maintenance (Rahman & Alharbi, 2024) and (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). This creates extra costs related to the operation of fully electric aircraft and is another challenge to their widespread commercial use.

One of the biggest concerns related to the use of lithium-ion batteries in aircraft is their safety and reliability in demanding conditions. Thermal runaway is one of the most serious risks; this is a process where a chain of reactions can cause a rapid increase in battery temperature, destabilizing it and leading to battery failure (Suárez et al., 2024; Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Several studies identify BMS (battery management systems) as a tool to increase reliability in battery operation (Suárez et al., 2024; Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). Along with conducting very rigorous testing of batteries, battery management systems are required to monitor real-time battery conditions and detect system anomalies before they turn into more serious concerns. However, it is important to note that although systems like BMS work to mitigate safety concerns, they increase the overall weight of the battery system. This further creates challenges in terms of balance between safety and efficiency.

2.5. Alternative Battery Technologies

Recent research suggests several new battery technologies that could potentially combat the current limitations posed by existing lithium-ion batteries (Ningappa et al., 2025). Solid-state batteries are one of the most promising alternatives to lithium-ion batteries. These use solid electrolytes instead of conventional liquid electrolytes in order to increase thermal stability, leading to reduced flammability risks. They also increase potential energy density. Although this improvement in safety and energy density is very attractive, solid-state batteries are still not very practical for widespread use. This is due to difficulties in large-scale manufacturing, as well as challenges with durability.

Another promising alternative is lithium-sulfur batteries. Sulfur is lightweight and abundant, and in theory, these batteries could have an energy density between 2500 and 2600 Wh/kg. However, this also comes with trade-offs, including major degradation challenges primarily caused by polysulfide dissolution (Ningappa et al., 2025). Lithium-air and lithium-metal batteries are more alternatives that provide solutions to reduce battery mass through high energy density potential. However, both of these technologies face challenges with power output, safety, and cycle life, which restricts their use in aviation. The balance, as well as the trade-offs, that come with these technologies can be further emphasized in the projected performance estimates for 2040 (Ningappa et al., 2025). Solid-state batteries are projected to reach between 400 and 600 Wh/kg specific energy while also having an expected lifespan of 1000-2000 cycles, the highest projected durability. This makes them one of the best, most balanced emerging options. Lithium-sulfur batteries are also projected to achieve 400-600 Wh/kg, but only 500-1000 cycles, while lithium-air batteries are projected to reach 500-800 Wh/kg, but have a projected lifespan of 200-500 cycles. Another upcoming approach uncovered is structural batteries (Ningappa et al., 2025). These aim to directly address the weight problem by having the aircraft structures themselves function as energy storage systems. The potential impact this solution could have is very significant. One study identified that the aircraft weight could be reduced by up to 26%. However, this technology is still restricted due to problems with certification and manufacturing.

Overall, current battery technology has several limitations which restrict the adoption of fully electric commercial aircrafts. These limitations are difficult to work at once, as the combination of factors such as energy density, aircraft weight, charging time, battery degradation, safety, and reliability introduces trade-offs. Although upcoming technologies do improve on some of these challenges, they are still restricted by manufacturing, scalability, and technical feasibility. This prevents them from currently replacing lithium-ion batteries on a larger scale. Improving battery performance, however, is only one part of the challenge, as efficient power electronics systems are also important.

3. Power Electronics and Its Impact on the Performance and Durability of Electric Aircraft

Unlike conventional aircraft, which use combustion engines to produce thrust, electric aircraft use electrical energy to power motors connected to their propulsors. These systems rely on several interconnected components, with the energy source, power electronics, electric motors, and propulsors each performing a different role. The energy source supplies electrical power to the power electronics, which then deliver it to the electric motors (Fard et al., 2022). The electric motors convert this electrical energy into mechanical power, which drives the propulsors to produce thrust (Chen et al., 2025). For commercial aircraft, however, each of these components must provide enough power while remaining lightweight, efficient, and reliable.

Power electronics form a crucial link between an aircraft’s electrical power source and its electric motors, controlling how electrical energy is converted and supplied to the propulsion system (Radomsky, 2024). Several papers further explore that in an all-electric aircraft, DC/DC converters regulate the electrical power supplied to the high-voltage DC network, while inverters convert this power into a form that can be used by the electric motors. This allows the electrical power delivered to the motors to be adjusted according to the aircraft’s changing propulsion requirements during flight (Radomsky, 2024). However, the source proceeds to suggest that these conversion processes are not completely efficient, meaning that some of the electrical energy is lost as heat within the system itself. These components tend to handle large amounts of electrical power, and this leads to losses in electrical power that may be considered relatively small to become significant, making power-conversion efficiency an important consideration for electric aircraft (Radomsky, 2024).

The efficiency of power electronics is particularly important in electric aircraft because any energy lost during power conversion is unavailable for propulsion (Radomsky, 2024). The energy that is not converted into useful electrical output is instead dissipated as heat, which must be removed to prevent the components from overheating. This creates a new requirement as these power electronics need their own additional cooling systems. This further adds weight to the aircraft and can reduce some of the efficiency gained from electric propulsion (Radomsky, 2024). This leads to a tradeoff between efficiency and aircraft weight, as reducing energy loss for better efficiency needs effective management of heat without adding extra and excessive mass to the aircraft. Current inverters can reach efficiencies of around 98–99%, however, these figures do not represent the efficiency of the entire propulsion system (Radomsky, 2024). This is because losses can also happen in other power components, including the DC link, HVDC bus, and motor.

3.1. System Voltage and Its Impact on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

As electric propulsion systems require more power, system voltage becomes an important design consideration. For the same power output, a higher voltage means a lower current is needed (Fard et al., 2022). The lower current can therefore allow lighter cables to be used, which reduces the overall weight of the electrical system. However, the literature consistently shows that increasing the voltage also makes insulation and electrical safety more difficult to manage. At high, cruising altitudes, the low air pressure adds constraints to the system voltage and makes it harder to operate safely (Fard et al., 2022). Additionally, although higher voltage results in lightweight conductors and cables, it also requires thicker insulation and larger gaps between conductors. This is important in order to prevent electrical breakdown and increase safety (Fard et al., 2022). To summarize, although increasing voltage can reduce mass of cables and conductors, the extra insulation and spacing required can increase the overall power density of the system (the amount of power generated per unit mass).

3.2. Power Electronics and Its Reliability on the Performance of Electric Aircraft

As acknowledged in recent literature, reliability is another major challenge in electric propulsion systems, as electrical failures can have serious consequences during flight (Radomsky, 2024). This is because the power components are exposed to constant, repeated stress due to heat and electrical transfer. Over time, this can contribute to failures in the system. Another challenge is that electrical faults in the system must be detected and dealt with very quickly, and the rest of the system must be protected. This is often difficult as conventionally used protection devices may not react fast enough (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). According to studies, conventional circuit breakers can take around 5 ms to interrupt a fault (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). This is unsuitable in this case, as it can be problematic for failures such as short circuits or fast failures. This problem is even more serious in DC systems because there is no zero current, which increases the risk of electrical arcs forming (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). The literature identifies solid-state circuit breakers as a potential solution to this issue. Failures in the system can be suppressed hundreds of times faster, which makes them a better alternative. Furthermore, they do not run the risk of creating electrical arcs when the circuit is broken. However, it is highlighted that SSCBs (Solid State Circuit Breakers) also have limitations, mainly when operating at high voltages. Research shows that in SSCBs, hundreds of amperes can be suppressed at 28V DC. On the contrary, however, only tens of amperes can be suppressed when the voltage levels rise (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). This problem is even more relevant when scaled to the high-voltage systems in aircraft. The electrical stress on the switch increases significantly (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). This can have consequences in the reliability of the aircraft.

Conventional silicon-based semiconductors are limited in their efficiency, the temperature at which they operate, and switching frequency (Chen et al., 2025). Currently, no silicon-based semiconductor can operate at temperatures higher than 200 °C (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022). To combat this, a newer alternative identified in the literature is wide-bandgap semiconductors. These include options such as SiC and GaN, which can operate at higher voltages and temperatures than Si-based semiconductors and have lower switching losses (Chen et al., 2025). These semiconductor alternatives reduce switching losses, which directly improves the efficiency and power density of the entire system (Radomsky, 2024). The higher switching frequency further means that the passive components in the system need to store less energy between switching cycles. As a result, they can be smaller. This reduces the overall size and weight of the power electronics system in the aircraft. However, these devices are still expensive and can create challenges related to electromagnetic interference and long-term reliability (Radomsky, 2024). Overall, while these alternatives can potentially improve efficiency and power density of the aircraft, they still need to be developed before they are ready for use in commercial aircraft (Barzkar & Ghassemi, 2022; Chen et al., 2025; Radomsky, 2024). Overall, the literature concludes that although power electronics technologies have significant advantages, further improvements are crucial before fully electric commercial aircraft can be implemented commercially. It is important to discuss how both battery technologies and power electronics come together to influence the widespread adoption of fully electric aircraft.

4. Feasibility of Widespread Adoption

These limitations are evident in electric aircraft that are currently being developed. For example, Heart Aerospace’s X1 became the largest battery-electric aircraft ever flown when it completed its first flight on 12 August 2026 (Heart Aerospace, 2026). The X1 is a full-scale demonstrator for the company’s planned ES-30, a 30-seat hybrid-electric regional aircraft (Heart Aerospace, 2026). However, the ES-30 is only designed for short regional routes, with an all-electric range of just 200 km. Because of this, it uses a hybrid-electric system to extend its range beyond what batteries alone can currently provide (Heart Aerospace, 2026). The Pipistrel Velis Electro shows a similar pattern: it is a two-seat aircraft designed mainly for pilot training, which reflects how, so far, fully electric aviation has only been certified for small aircraft (Pipistrel, 2026). Together, these examples suggest that electric aviation is technologically possible today, but only on a small scale and over short distances.

Electric propulsion is a lot more efficient than combustion-based propulsion because electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical power with relatively low energy losses (Radomsky, 2024). However, this efficiency advantage is outweighed by the much lower specific energy of current batteries compared with aviation fuel (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025). The literature consistently identified that, due to the batteries storing less energy per unit of mass, an electric aircraft has to carry a much greater mass of energy storage to achieve the same amount of usable energy (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025; Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). This extra battery mass increases the aircraft’s overall weight, which reduces payload capacity and limits range (Pattanayak & Mavris, 2025; Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). Conventional aircraft also get lighter as fuel burns off during flight, while a battery pack’s mass stays essentially constant (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 2023). This makes battery-electric propulsion especially hard to scale up to larger commercial aircraft, which need both more stored energy and the capacity to carry substantial passenger and cargo payloads (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 2023). On top of this, electric aircraft need power electronics, cooling systems, and high-voltage electrical infrastructure, all of which add further mass and complexity (Radomsky, 2024). So while electric propulsion may be more efficient, the low specific energy of batteries and the extra weight induced by the electrical systems stop it from being used in larger, fully-electric commercial aircraft.

As discussed the limited specific energy of current batteries also means that only a relatively small amount of usable energy can be carried without adding excessive mass to the aircraft (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). This means that increasing the battery capacity creates a trade-off, as the additional energy from the batteries must strike a balance against the extra mass added to the aircraft. This further leads to the conclusion that increasing battery capacity does not necessarily equal a proportional increase in aircraft range because the additional battery mass also increases the energy required for flight. This further shows why current electric aircraft are restricted to short-range flights instead of the longer routes covered by conventional commercial aircrafts. Also, as explored by (Radomsky, 2024), losses in power conversion within the power electronics and electric propulsion system reduce the amount of usable battery energy available for propulsion.

Apart from having range limitations, electric aircrafts also have charging requirements. This could affect their ability to manage normal commercial airline operations. Therefore, it is very important to consider the time needed to charge the batteries as aircraft turnaround time is very important in commercial flight operations. For example, Heart Aerospace’s ES-30, takes approximately 30 minutes to recharge between flights (Heart Aerospace, n.d.). Furthermore, widespread commercial adoption of electric aircraft would need airports to install new infrastructure and technology. This would include large transformers dedicated to the purpose of carrying megawatts of power, charging stations for the aircraft, and large-scale battery energy storage systems (United States Government Accountability Office, 2026). However, airports can potentially face challenges while implementing this infrastructure. This project would have high initial costs along with needing constant, reliable electricity. Furthermore, there is currently uncertainty about demand for electric commercial aircraft (United States Government Accountability Office, 2026). This goes to show that the widespread adoption of fully electric aircraft, along with needing technological improvements in the aircraft, would also need the implementation of changes to the airport infrastructure (United States Government Accountability Office, 2026).

Another barrier that remains important when considering the widespread adoption of fully electric aircraft is the economic feasibility; i.e., for aircraft carrying more than 20 passengers, electric aircraft could have operating costs approximately 25–30% higher per available seat-kilometre than the conventional aircraft currently used (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). Mainly, these higher costs are due to the higher initial capital associated with electric crafts, as well as the cost of constant battery replacement to combat battery degradation. On the flip side, however, electric aircraft have reduced energy and maintenance costs (Buvarp & Leijon, 2026). This means that as the technology improves, along with reductions in battery costs, electric aircraft could have more economic feasibility. To conclude, electric aircraft could be more economically feasible in the future as the technology and systems continue to evolve.

Despite all the challenges, one of the most significant advantages of electric aircraft is the environmental benefit. This is because they do not have emissions, as there is no fuel combustion involved. The full extent of the environmental implications, however, also depends on how the electricity which is used to charge the aircraft is generated (Schafer et al., 2018). Although there are great environmental benefits, the energy density limitations of current batteries are still widely prevalent. This prevents electric aircraft from flying past short-haul and medium-haul distances, and makes it unfeasible for them to replace conventional aircraft commercially. Overall, while electric aircraft could reduce the environmental impact of the aviation field, their technological challenges highly impacts there widespread adoption, which stops these benefits from being realized on a large scale.

Current literature and sources suggest that electric aircraft are currently more technologically feasible for short-haul flights, where the limited energy density of the batteries does not play a major limiting role. The main barrier is the low specific energy of current batteries, which limits the energy that can be carried without adding too much mass. Overall, the feasibility of widespread adoption depends on advances in battery technology, efficiency of power electronics, and the infrastructure implemented in airsports. Electric commercial aviation has a lot of potential, but whether or not it can be adopted widely depends on future technological advancements in the areas identified by the literature in this study.