Rapid Scanning of Inordinately Efficient Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) Towards Wastewater Treatment: A Review

Umme Sulaim; Saeeda Naqvi

doi:10.20944/preprints202606.1684.v1

Submitted:

22 June 2026

Posted:

23 June 2026

You are already at the latest version

Abstract

Wastewater treatment is purely a water purification step that clarifies wastewater from industrial, agricultural and human generated wastes like dyes, pesticides, antibiotics and plastics and heavy metals to make it consumable for humans. Access to safe and clean drinking water is a fundamental right and therefore should be accounted foremost to fulfil ongoing demands. Contamination of water is often due to the presence of water pollutants above the threshold value as directed by different statuary bodies like Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in India, responsible for determining the minimum pollutant that should be present in wastewater and marked as safe for human intake. Some of the most peculiar pollutant present in amicable amount in wastewater are dyes, heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), inorganic ions, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceuticals, and personal care products (PPCPs), endocrine disruptors (EDCs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radionuclides among others. These are the products of textile industries, home wastes, and agricultural wastes and leather industries to name a few that are directly discarded into the water bodies without proper pre-chemical treatment. In this paper, we have attempted to search and include the exhaustive list of Metal-Organic frameworks (MOFs) exhibiting exceptional degradation capability towards wastewater to achieve our Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) of access of safe and pure drinking water to all. In countries like India, where the availability of safely managed drinking water is a bare minimum, compared to its other continental counterparts, measures should be taken to ensure the minimization of poor sanitation facilities, safely managed domestic and industrial wastewater, the presence of water bodies with good ambient water quality, changes in water efficiency over time, freshwater withdrawal as proportion of available freshwater resources and degree of integrated water resource management. We have actively discussed the synthesis of novel MOFs such as lignocellulosic materials, biochars, MOF-derived carbons, bimetallic MOFs and magnetic materials exhibiting fantastic degradation capacity to fulfil our needs to purify water. The surface characteristics of MOF material is also discussed to include morphology, structure, metal ligand interaction, porosity and stability. The properties, history, background, classification—based on origin, synthesis, factors affecting synthesis, trends of publishing on Metal organic framework (MOF) based wastewater treatment as well as contrast to overall application is also discussed in brevity. The statistics revolving around proportions of available freshwater, discussion of a few water contaminants in greater detail, their removal rates and also a subsequent attempt to automate the process of water cleaning to sustain the global water needs and challenges using Metal organic framework (MOF) research database like the one such as PubChem used for drug research. Key limitations include the stability of MOF, toxicity, costly purchase of chemical for Metal organic framework (MOF) synthesis and not all composites work equally on all the contaminants like selective degradation of organic pollutants and recyclability is a problem that should be addressed equally.

Keywords:

metal organic framework (MOF)

;

sustainable development goals (SDGs)

;

water remediation

;

dyes

;

antibiotics

;

heavy metals

;

pesticides

;

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Subject:

Chemistry and Materials Science - Analytical Chemistry

1. Introduction

Metal-organic framework (MOF) is a class of porous, versatile, cage-like structures comprising metal centres and organic linkers. The metal ions can typically be transition metals like Ni, Fe, Cu, Zn, Co and organic linkers like 1,4-Benzene dicarboxylic acid (BDC), Benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate (BTC), Benzene-1,3,5-tri benzoate (BTB), Naphthalene-1,4 phenyl dicarboxylic acid, 4-Pyrid-4-ylbenzoic acid (HPBA), Porphyrin, Benzene-1,4-diamine, 2-Methyl imidazole (MIM), Polyaniline (PANI) and Terephthalic acid, etc.

Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) was discovered by Omar Yaghi, a professor at UC Berkley, California at the University of Michigan (1999) while exploring ways to store gases in porous materials [1]. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) stand out from other materials in terms of excellent material properties such as large specific surface area, tuneable pore size, fine crystalline structure, multiple active sites, high adsorption capacity, selectivity, stability, sensitivity, versatility, permeability, reliability, scalability, recyclability, and reusability. Other properties of equal significance are kinetic and thermodynamic parameters, simplicity, cost-effectiveness, low energy consumption, high pollutant removal rate, speed, efficiency, biodegradability, and thermal stability.

Figure 1. Properties of Metal organic framework.

Classification of Metal-organic framework:

Based on origin, Metal-organic framework can be classified as 1) Zeolitic Imidazolate framework (ZIF) 2) Material Institute Lavoisier (MIL) 3) University of Oslo (UiO) 4) Isoreticular (IR) MOF 5) Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) 6) Porous coordination network (PCN) 7) Porous coordination polymer (PCP)

Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework (ZIF)

Zeolitic Imidazolate framework (ZIF) is a subclass of the Metal-organic framework (MOF) composed of tetrahedral metal centers such as Zn²⁺ or Co²⁺ and imidazolate linkers. It is constructed from materials possessing valence electrons. The geometry resembles zeolites, featuring similar bond angles between metal and nitrogen atoms that impart chemical and thermal stability. Examples are ZIF-8, ZIF-90, ZIF-67 and ZIF-71 [2]. ZIFs possess unique properties such as highly crystalline structure, large pore size, generous surface area, thermal and chemical stability, enhanced selectivity and hydrophilicity, decreased cytotoxicity, acid sensitivity, and a wealth of binding sites. Applications include adsorption, separation, water splitting, corrosion, and sensing.

Materials Institute Lavoiser (MIL)

Material Institute Lavoiser is a type of Metal-organic framework (MOF) named after the institute Lavoiser in France, where they were first developed. These frameworks are typically constructed using trivalent metal ions such as Al³⁺, Fe³⁺ , or Cr³⁺ and dicarboxylate linkers [3]. Properties include durability, high compatibility, versatility, uniform porosity, vast surface area, excellent thermal stability, chemical resistance, and redox properties. Some applications of Material Institute Lavoisier (MIL) are separation, catalysis, environmental cleaning, gas storage, drug delivery, and biomedical applications. Examples of Material Institute Lavoisier (MIL) are MIL-53, MIL-88, MIL-100, MIL-101, MIL-125, MIL-127, and MIL-141 [4,5,6,7,8,9,10].

University of Oslo (UiO)

Zirconium terephthalates are prominent Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) produced at the University of Oslo. They have metal nodes linked 12-fold in Face centred cubic (FCU) topology to form cuboctahedral crystals. The [Zr₆O₄(OH)₄] Secondary building units (SBUs), each linked with twelve 1,4-benzene-dicarboxylate (H₂BDC) linkers form the main structure [11]. Properties include porosity, large surface area, resilient materials, adaptability, outstanding mechanical, thermal, and chemical stability, and cost-effectiveness. Some examples of the University of Oslo’s (UiOs) are UiO-66, UiO-67 and its derivatives. Zirconium or Hafnium clusters coordinate with carboxylate linkers such as terephthalic acid to form University of Oslo compounds. Applications include sensing, supercapacitors, catalysis, adsorption, drug delivery, gas storage, energy storage, and environment cleanup.

Isoreticular MOF (IR)

Isoreticular MOFs (IR MOFs) are synthesized using Secondary building unit (SBU) [Zn₄O]⁶⁺ and a series of aromatic carboxylates. The crystal structure is microporous, crystalline, and octahedral [12]. Application of Isoreticular metal-organic frameworks (IR MOFs) are adsorption, sensing, and catalysis. Properties of equal significance are porosity, selectivity, sensitivity, active pore sites, and large surface area. Examples of Isoreticular MOFs (IR MOFs) are IRMOF-1, IRMOF-3, IRMOF-8, and IRMOF-10, etc. [13,14,15,16].

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST)

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) is a well-known MOF invented by researchers at Hong Kong University of Science and Technology in 1991. The structure is composed of dimeric copper linked to four carboxylic acid functional groups from four H₃BTC ligand molecules forming a copper carboxylate motif in which each copper atom is octahedrally coordinated with other copper atoms and four oxygen atoms.

Meanwhile, the remaining coordination sites are not bound and thus are available and ready to be occupied by solvent molecules such as water. Properties include a porous, crystalline framework renowned for its large surface area and hardness. Applications are catalysis and sensors. HKUST-1 is a well-known example also known as MOF-199.

Porous Coordination Networks (PCN)

Porous coordination networks are stereo-octahedron materials, that have a 3D structure and a hole–cage–hole topology. Properties include large surface area, significant porosity, high connectivity, often featuring cub octahedral cages as their defining structural motifs. These frameworks are designed to optimize molecular interactions within their cavities, making them highly effective for gas adsorption and separation.

Examples are PCN-57, PCN-222 and PCN-224. Zirconium ions couple with tetrakis (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin resulting in wide pores and a strong framework. The flexibility of PCN enables inclusion of numerous functional groups, resulting in tailored features for specific applications. Their stability and versatility make them useful for both academic research and industry uses.

Porous Coordination Polymer (PCP)

Porous coordination polymers (PCPs) are synthesized using transition metal ions as Secondary building units (SBUs) and carboxylic acid, pyridine, and its derivatives as Primary building units (PBUs). Properties include biocompatibility, non-toxicity and biodegradability. Applications are separation, catalysis, and sensor. Examples of Porous coordination polymers (PCPs) are 1a, 1b, 1c, DUT-49, BUT-8 (Cr), NU-1105 and NCU-100.

Figure 2. Classification of Metal organic framework based on origin.

Figure 4. Factors affecting synthesis of reaction.

Factors affecting the synthesis of Metal-organic frameworks

Several factors affect synthesis like reaction time, temperature, solvent type, metal and organic linker ratio, etc affecting shape, size, morphology, topography and overall structure of Metal organic frameworks (MOFs).

Reaction time: The reaction time generally affects forward reaction but little does to the type of product. However, some specific reactions are affected and thus guided by the i.e., the type of Metal organic framework. As the reaction time increases, the density of the tetrahedral nodes in the resulting product also increases leading to increase in the energy of the framework. (Tao et al. 2021).

The change in reaction time will change the particle size of Metal organic framework (MOF) and also agglomeration. (Ma et al., 2021a) A longer reaction time generally allows complete crystallization of Metal organic framework (MOF) structure, increases the activity of molecules and potentially increases the size of crystals.

2.: Temperature: The temperature plays an important role in MOF synthesis affecting the rate of reaction, solubility of reactant, kinetics of crystal growth, coordination ability of coordination group, morphology, shape, and size of Metal organic framework (MOF) crystal.
3.: Solvent type: The choice of solvent is crucial as it affects reactivity, solubility, redox potential, thermodynamic property and activation energy of the Metal organic framework (MOF). The quality of the solvent depends on solubility, polarity, coordination ability and template effect. The common solvents used in the growth of Metal organic framework (MOF) crystals are Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), Alcohol, Acetonitrile, Methanol and Demineralized water (DMW), etc.
4.: Metal to organic linker ratio: The nature of metal ions and organic linkers affects the structure, pore size, composition, and stability of Metal organic framework (MOF) reaction.
5.: pH: pH affects reactant solubility, impurity activity, coordination, and protonation/deprotonation affecting the coordination of metal ions and organic linkers shaping crystal growth. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) of high dimensions are formed at high pH.
6.: Reactant: Metal precursors, organic linkers and their concentration ratios tend to significantly alter the structure of Metal organic framework (MOF). Decreasing the reactant concentration decreases the particle size but once the optimum point is reached, it will lead to particle agglomeration and uneven morphology. Surfactants/capping agents often affects nucleation and crystal growth resulting in change in size and morphology of the Metal organic framework (MOF) crystal. The higher the concentration, the higher is the growth rate and also formation of large sized Metal organic frameworks (MOFs).

Some of the common Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) taking an active part in adsorption, catalysis, sensing, corrosion, water splitting, drug delivery, waste water treatment, chips, supercapacitors, 3D printing, biomedical applications, gas storage and energy storage, etc applications are discussed below:

Figure 3. Some common types of Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) utilized in various fields of studies.

Metal organic framework (MOF) is an ever-growing field that is rapidly expanding and it can be tracked down due to the development of novel synthetic approaches to design and develop new Metal organic framework materials (MOFs) and the exponential growth of research publication in almost every application domain. Apart from traditional routes, Machine learning (ML) and Artificial intelligence (AI) tools can also be used to predict patterns and trends in functions and mechanisms of Metal-organic framework materials (MOFs). Thus, possibilities of the use of the Metal-organic framework (MOF) can be explored as a potential source in cancer therapy, synthetic organ transplant, drug delivery, 3D printing high-tech water purification techniques, etc.

To automate the discovery, design and application process of Metal organic frameworks (MOFs), Machine learning (ML) can be used to predict structure-property relationships, material design and discovery to design novel materials, performance prediction and optimisation, data mining and integration, predictive modelling to predict properties and performance, computational screening to rapidly evaluate Metal organic framework (MOF) structure and optimisation of synthesis parameters to optimise synthesis conditions, etc. The flowchart below clearly defines the machine learning process in a detailed way.

Figure 5. Steps in Machine learning (ML) that affects synthesis, structure and optimization of Metal organic framework.

Synthesis

Metal-organic framework (MOF) can be synthesized using a variety of techniques such as the solvothermal method, hydrothermal method, sonochemical method, microwave synthesis, and electrochemical synthesis depending on morphology, structure, and pore size of Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs).

Solvothermal method involves mixing of material precursors placed in an autoclave, for the execution of reaction at a given temperature and pressure. The characteristics and pore size of the material depend on the set temperature. The existing solvothermal methods are based on organic solvents, such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), and Demineralised water (DMW) however solvent less methods are also utilised in as a part of green synthesis campaign in other methods.

Microwave synthesis is a time-saving method, that utilizes microwave irradiation to heat reactant mixtures in a domestic household microwave oven (DMO) or similar commercially available instrumentation. Using microwave synthesis, various common Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) such as MIL-101, UiO-66, ZIF-8, and PCN-134 have been successfully prepared.

Mechanochemical synthesis is a green and eco-friendly approach that utilises methods such as ball-milling, screw extrusion, liquid-assisted resonant acoustic mixing and other approaches. This method has attracted extensive attention because it uses little or no solvent, enables time-saving one pot synthesis, and generates minimal waste. Liquid-assisted grinding (LAG) and ion- or liquid-assisted grinding (ILAG) are the most commonly used methods in mechanochemical synthesis. Compared with absolutely solvent-free approaches, these methods promote the dissolution of solid reagents and improve the formation of coordination bonds.

Sonochemical synthesis utilizes ultrasound energy ranging from 20 to 1000 kHz, which enables preparation of numerous Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) with diverse crystal sizes and morphologies. In general, the morphology and particle size of Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are greatly affected by the reaction time, temperature and ultrasonic power.

Electrochemical synthesis is a promising method that applies electrical current to chemical synthesis reactions. This method can be divided into electrode superficial nucleation (ESN), indirect bipolar electrodeposition (IBED), and electrophoretic deposition (EPD) methods. There is no requirement for metal salts as precursors because the metal ions are generated by the electrodes.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) synthesizes ultrafine particles of less than 1 micrometer (1 μm) (nanomaterials are of 10-100nm size) by chemical reaction taking place in the gaseous phase. This method is mainly used in semiconductor manufacturing and thin films. Homogeneous nucleation generally takes place at the gas phase and heterogeneous nucleation takes place at the substrate level.

Laser ablation often involves nanoparticle generation using a powerful laser beam that hits the target material vaporizing source or precursor. This green technique does not require stabilizing agents or other chemicals and therefore can be declared as a safe synthetic method. The nanoparticle properties, such as average size and distribution, can be tuned by adjusting the fluence, wavelength, and laser salt addition.

Figure 6. Synthetic measures utilized in the synthesis of various MOF materials.

Characterization of Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) can be done using techniques such as X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Thermo-gravimetric Analysis (TGA/DTA), UV-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Cyclic voltammetry (CV). Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) synthesizes ultrafine particles of less than 1 micro meter (1 μm) (nano materials are of 10-100nm size) by chemical reaction taking place in the gaseous phase. This method is mainly used in semiconductor manufacturing and thin films. Homogeneous nucleation generally takes place at gas phase and heterogeneous nucleation takes place at substrate level.

The popularity of Metal organic framework (MOF) material can be estimated from the fact that nearly 60,000 papers were published in wastewater treatment itself in the last decade out of which 18,000 papers were published last year 2024 and the number is increasing (Scopus database). This can be explained by the fact that new and advanced methods are continuously adopted to synthesize Metal organic framework (MOF) materials. Some of them can be recognized as green synthesis, Metal organic framework (MOF) derived carbons, Bimetallic Metal organic framework (MOF), Metal organic framework (MOF) derived from plants, animals and bacterial sources, Magnetic materials, etc. Metal organic framework (MOF) material is designated as a promising material for potential future applications such as chips, sensors and supercapacitors. This can be estimated from the fact that around 1,20,000 papers were published on Metal organic framework (MOF) last year 2024 around all application domains such as sensors, membranes, drug delivery, biomedical application, CO₂ adsorption, water splitting, hydrogen storage, supercapacitors and desalination, etc.

Figure 7. Trends of MOF publication in wastewater treatment and overall application.

Water Pollution

Even though 71% of the whole earth is covered with water, only 3% is present in useable freshwater form. The human population is estimated to be 9 billion by 2050 (Ghumman et al., 2022, 2021) and therefore the demand for freshwater will also increase dramatically with the increase in population. With limited water resources, lower ambient water quality, poor wastewater treatment prior to disposal in water bodies, low safely managed drinking water, and poorly managed withdrawal of water proportional to available water resources, the need to purify water is a must. The situation around clean water can be visualized from the fact that around 1.9 billion people live in water-scarce areas and this will increase to 3 billion by 2050 [17].

According to a UN statistic, around 2/3rd of the population will face water scarcity by 2050 (He et al., 2021). Currently around 780 million people lack access to clean and safe drinking water and by 2050, three out of four people will face drought conditions (UNU-INWEH, 2024). Thus, the responsible stakeholders and policymakers must ensure availability of safe drinking water to avoid incoming crisis and water conflicts.

Figure 8. Sustainable development goal (SDG 6) Proportion of water bodies with good ambient water quality exported from UN water site.

Water can be polluted using natural means like rocks, soil, debris, and organic waste or synthetic routes like laboratories, homes, hospitals, agriculture, mining tanneries, textile, and industries. Major Pollutants that pollute the water resource are heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, antibiotics, organic wastes, inorganic salts and metals, volatile organic compounds, radionuclides, and biological wastes. Desalination can be adopted as a major step to ensure safe and clean drinking water sources.

Figure 9. Application of Metal organic framework (MOF) material toward water remediation.

Water can be treated to consumable form using a series of purification steps like Ozonation, Advanced oxidation process (AOP), Fenton process, UV radiation, Activated sludge method, Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration, and Reverse Osmosis. Some of the highly efficient MOF materials that can be used to degrade pollutants like Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), Perfluoro octane sulfonate (PFOS), Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), Poly-aluminium chlorides (PACs), Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), Endocrine Disruptors (EDCs) [18] are listed above:

Dyes

Dyes are colored substances typically organic compounds that are used to impart colour to other materials like textiles, paper, food, hair, drugs, cosmetics, leather, plastic, medicine, and printing. A few characteristics of dye material include solubility, chemical bonding, and substrate affinity. It can be classified into natural and synthetic with various subtypes within each category. Some examples of dyes include: 1) Natural dyes derived from plants, animals, or minerals. 2) Synthetic dyes produced chemically 3) Specific dyes like Acid dyes, Basic dyes, Direct dyes, Reactive dyes, Disperse dyes, Vat dyes, Sulphur dyes, Azoic dyes, Pigment dyes, and Optical brightness.

Around 9,000 colorants with more than 50,000 trade names are used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, leather, tanning, petrochemical, and textile industries. The mass of synthetic colorants used by the industry is estimated at the level of 1-3 x 10⁵ tons while total annual consumption is 7 x 10⁵ tons respectively [19]. Synthetic dyes are relatively easy to detect but difficult to eliminate from wastewater and surface water ecosystems due to their aromatic structure.

Due to their high stability, dyes pose serious health and ecological issues such as toxicity, mutagenic property, and carcinogenity. Currently, the removal of contaminants is done using flocculation, coagulation, precipitation, photocatalytic degradation, biological oxidation, ion exchange, adsorption, and membrane filtration.

S. No.	Metal-organic framework (MOF)	Pollutant	Efficiency	Ref
1.	[Cu(bipy)Cl₂]n [Cu(bipy)Cl₂]n [Cu(bipy)(SO4)]n [Cu(bipy)(SO4)]n	Methyl Orange Acid Orange 7 Acid Orange 7 Methyl Orange	1084 mg/g 848 mg/g 3308 mg/g 1521 mg/g	[20]
2.	Fe/MOF-5@CTS	Congo Red	219.78 mg/g	[21]
3.	Zr-(TPA)₂-UC Zr-(TPA)₂-U	Methylene blue Methylene blue	151.38 mg/g 147.54 mg/g	[22]
4.	Fe₆-MOF-N	Methylene blue	162.46 mg/g	[23]
5.	Zr-MOF@ATP CS	Methylene blue	442.86 mg/g	[24]
6.	MOF/nanoporous carbon	Methylene blue	2724 mg/g	[25]
7.	Cu-BTC@AG	Methylene blue	282.46 mg/g	[26]
8.	Eu-PET	Congo Red	2312 mg/g (pH=7) 2988.11 mg/g (pH= 4)	[27]
9.	BUT-8 (Cr)	Rhodamine B	811.7 mg/g	[28]
10.	ABim-Zn MOF	Methylene blue Chicago sky blue	174.64 mg/g 144.26 mg/g	[29]
11.	PAAc/Lap	Methylene blue	3796 mg/g	[30]
12.	MnTB	Methyl orange	1500 mg/g	[31]
13.	MWCNTs/Fe₃O₄/polyaniline	Methyl orange Congo red	446.25 mg/g 417.38 mg/g	[32]
14.	MIL-101 SO₃H	Malachite green Methylene blue	596 mg/g 351.0 mg/g	[33]
15.	Ni₅₀/Cu BTC Ni₃₀/Cu–BTC	Congo red Congo red	999.20 mg/g 903.40 mg/g	[34]
16.	MBC	Methylene blue	100 mg/g	[35]
17.	MIL-53 (Al)	Rhodamine B	1547 mg/g (30^o C)	[36]
18.	MIL- 53 (Al)	Methyl orange	182.5 mg/g	[37]
19.	MIL-68 (Al)	Methylene blue Malachite green	666.67 mg/g 153.85 mg/g	[38]
20.	MIL-68 (Al)	Rhodamine B	1666.67 mg/g 1111.11 mg/g	[39]
21.	MIL-53@PCA MIL-53@CA	Congo red Congo red	476.81 mg/g 370.29 mg/g	[40]
22.	MIL-68 (In) nanorods MIL-68 (In) micro rods	Congo red Congo red	1204.0 mg/g 318 mg/g	[41]
23.	RGO/NH₂ MIL-68 (Al)	Congo red	473.93 mg/g	[42]
24.	MIL-88A (Fe) MIL-88A (Fe Al) MIL-88A (Al) MIL-88A (Fe-Al)/CS MIL-88A (Fe)/CS MIL-88A (Al)/CS CS	Congo red Congo red Congo red Congo red Congo red Congo red Congo red	607.7 mg/g 536.4 mg/g 512.1 mg/g 1312 mg/g 1056 mg/g 996.7 mg/g 769.6 mg/g	[43]
25.	Cd-ZIF	Malachite green	3324.17 mg/g (25^o C)	[44]
26.	CZM	Malachite green	953.14 mg/g	[45]
27.	Zn-MOF	Congo red Methyl orange	355.16 mg/g 148.7 mg/g	[46]
28.	ZIF-8@ZnAl-LDH ZIF-8 ZIF-8@ZnAl-LDH ZIF-8	Methyl orange Methyl orange Malachite green Malachite green	609.7 mg/g 322.58 mg/g 194.5 mg/g 155.27 mg/g	[47]
29.	ZIF-67	Malachite green Malachite green	3226 mg/g (60^o C) 2430 mg/g (20^o C)	[48]
30.	ZIF-67	Congo red Rhodamine b	328.77 mg/g 112.35 mg/g	[49]
31.	ZIF-Co/Ni Co^-ZIF Ni-ZIF Ni-ZIF Co-ZIF ZIF-Co/Ni	Methyl orange Methyl orange Methyl orange Methylene blue Methylene blue Methylene blue	380.91 mg/g 255.15 mg/g 176.65 mg/g 164.90 mg/g 157.59 mg/g 148.14 mg/g	[50]
32.	ZIF 8@CS	Congo red	922.0 mg/g	[51]
33.	ZIF-8@GO ZIF-8@CNT ZIF-8	Malachite green Malachite green Malachite green	3300 mg/g 2034 mg/g 1667 mg/g	[52]
34.	PCN-222	Methylene blue Methyl orange Methylene blue Methyl orange	906 mg/g 589 mg/g 1239 mg/g (Binary) 1022 mg/g (Binary)	[53]
35.	NH₂-MIL-125 (Ti)	Bromocresol red 46 Bromocresol blue 41 Methylene blue	1296 mg/g 1257 mg/g 862 mg/g	[54]
36.	MIL-101-NH₂ @COF	Acid Blue 9	256 mg/g	[55]
37.	MOF-235	Methyl orange Methylene blue	501 mg/g (45^o C) 252 mg/g (45^o C)	[56]
38.	CS/MOF 235	Methyl orange Methylene blue	2857 mg/g 2326 mg/g	[57]
39.	MOF-525@CS	Congo red	1947 mg/g	[58]
40.	MIL-100 (Fe) MIL-100 (Cr) MIL-100 (Fe) MIL-100 (Cr)	Methylene blue Methylene blue Methyl orange Methyl orange	736.2 mg/g 645.3 mg/g 1045.2 mg/g 211.8 mg/g	[59]
41.	MIL-100 (Fe) MIL-101 (Fe) MIL-100 (Fe)	Reactive blue 4 Acid blue 25 Basic blue 3	425.05 mg/g 287.18 mg/g 132.74 mg/g	[60]
42.	MIL-101 (Cr)	Reactive yellow 15 Reactive red 24 Reactive black 5 Reactive blue 2	397 mg/g (30^o C) 390 mg/g (30^o C) 386 mg/g (30^o C) 377 mg/g (30^o C)	[61]
43.	Amino MIL-101(Al) MIL-101(Al) Amino MIL-101(Al)	Methylene blue Methylene blue Methyl orange	762 mg/g 195 mg/g 188 mg/g	[62]
44.	NH2-MIL-101(Cr)	Congo red	1206 mg/g	[63]
45.	Fe₃O₄/PT/GO	Malachite green	560.58 mg/g (35^o C, pH=6)	[64]
46.	Fe(OH)₃@cellulose	Congo red	689.65 mg/g	[65]
47.	Fe₃O₄@PDA-COOH	Malachite green	331.02 mg/g	[66]
48.	Fe₃O₄/Al₂O₃/chitosan	Methyl orange	416 mg/g (25^o C, pH=6)	[67]
49.	Fe₃O₄@MIL-100 (Fe)	Methyl red	625 mg/g	[68]
50.	Fe₃O₄/β-CD/GO	Malachite green	990.10 mg/g (45^o C) 740.7 mg/g (25^o C)	[69]
51.	Fe₃O₄/AMCA/MIL-53 (Al)	Malachite green Methylene blue	329.61 mg/g (45^o C) 325.62 mg/g (45^o C)	[70]
52.	Fe₃O₄-PSS@ZIF 67	Methyl orange	738 mg/g (pH=8)	[71]
53.	La-MOF-NH₂@Fe₃O₄	Congo red	716.2 mg/g	[72]
54.	CP-1	Methyl orange Congo red	779 mg/g 739 mg/g	[73]
55.	Sr-BTTC	Basic red 2 Rhodamine B Methylene blue Crystal violet	675 mg/g 545 mg/g 270 mg/g 184 mg/g	[74]
56.	TS-COF-1	Methylene blue Rhodamine B Congo red	1691 mg/g 625 mg/g 319 mg/g	[75]
57.	nZVI/BC	Malachite green	515.77 mg/g	[76]
58.	SDU-CP 7	Safranine T Rhodamine B	1565 mg/g 919.2 mg/g	[77]
59.	JLU-MONT1	Basic red 9 Basic violet 14 Methyl violet Rhodamine 6G Methylene blue	1745 mg/g 1653 mg/g 1615 mg/g 1258 mg/g 306 mg/g	[78]
60.	BTT-TAPT COF	Indigo Carmine	547.33 mg/g	[79]
61.	Zr BTB H₄TBAPy PCN-134 2D Zr BTB H₄TBAPy PCN-134 2D	Rhodamine B Rhodamine B Methylene blue Methylene blue	238 mg/g 203 mg/g 124 mg/g 108 mg/g	[80]
62.	CNF γ AlOOH	Crystal violet Methylene blue	210 mg/g 204 mg/g	[81]
63.	β-CD/CA-g-CS	Methylene blue Malachite green Basic red Acid red Acid yellow Acid blue	946.66 mg/g 801.66 mg/g 770.50 mg/g 619.60 mg/g 429.22 mg/g 389.64 mg/g	[82]
64.	PAM-g-QC	Congo red Eriochrome blue SE	380.084 mg/g (50^o C) 349.284 mg/g (50^o C)	[83]
65.	Bio/MOF-2Me	Methyl violet	310.2 mg/g	[84]
66.	UiO-66	Alizarin red S	400 mg/g	[85]
67.	UiO-66 (Zr)	Safranin T	366 mg/g	[86]
68.	pH-switchable UiO-66	Sunset Yellow	352.8 mg/g	[87]
69.	UiO-66/GO	Congo red	1250 mg/g	[88]
70.	UiO-67 nano/microcrystals	Congo red Methyl orange Methylene blue	1144.9 mg/g 576.5 mg/g 215.6 mg/g	[89]
71.	N-doped UiO-66	Rhodamine B	384.1 mg/g	[90]
72.	Mn-UiO-66@GO-NH₂	Congo red	1265.8 mg/g	[91]
73.	UiO-66/MIL-101 (Fe) GO-COOH	Methylene blue	448.7 mg/g	[92]
74.	NPC	Methyl orange	872 mg/g	[93]
75.	Ag/ZIF-67	Methyl orange	994.6 mg/g	[94]
76.	UiO-66/wood membrane	Rhodamine 6G	690 mg/g	[95]
77.	H/UiO-66-NH2 xerogel	Reactive red 195	884.96 mg/g	[96]
78.	Pristine UiO-66	Methyl orange Methyl red Methylene blue Malachite green	454 mg/g 384 mg/g 370 mg/g 133 mg/g	[97]
79.	Ce(III) doped UiO-66	Congo red Methyl orange Acid chrome blue k Methylene blue	826.7 mg/g 639.6 mg/g 245.8 mg/g 145.3 mg/g	[98]
80.	Ce(III) doped UiO-67	Congo red Methyl orange Methylene blue	799.6 mg/g 401.2 mg/g 398.9 mg/g	[99]

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are medicines that treat bacterial infections by killing bacteria or stopping them from growing. Common antibiotics manufactured in the pharmaceutical industry are sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, metronidazole, levofloxacin, chloramphenicol, paracetamol, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, atenolol, atrazine, diclofenac, oxytetracycline, chloramphenicol, penicillin, amoxicillin, cefradine, chlortetracycline, doxycycline and azithromycin, etc.

Removal of antibiotics involves techniques such as advanced oxidation process (AOP), nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, chlorination, photocatalysis, fenton process, ozonation, membrane filtration, adsorption, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, UV radiation and activated sludge method, etc. Disposal of drugs as discharge in sewer system, deposition in landfills, production wastewater or unintentional wastewater during production and distribution are some of the common points of pollution sources in case of drug pollution.

Antibiotics and their metabolites are continuously discharged into the natural environment. Sources of antibiotic pollution are veterinary waste, pharmaceutical industry, dairy plants, human habitat, animal waste, hospital waste, animal husbandry, municipal waste and poultry waste. Antibiotics with low molecular weight (<1,000 D) rapidly dissolve in water leading to water contamination and eutrophication.

Pharmaceuticals such as anti-inflammatory, antibiotics, anti-epileptic, oestrogenic, beta blockers, anti-depressants, opioid analgesic, insect repellent, anaesthetic, anti-hypertensive, diuretics, antilipemic, anti-ulcerative and impotence drugs (gizmos et al. 2015; Kimiska et al. 2019; Shi et al. 2020) are considered a vital contaminant in waste water. The annual antibiotic consumption has been estimated to be 1,62,000 ton for China, 13,000 ton for US and 10,000 ton for European countries (Al najrani and Al sager, 2020).

S. No.	Metal organic framework (MOF)	Pollutant	Efficiency	Ref
1.	kC-g-PAAm@Fe3O4/MOF-199	Cefixime Levofloxacin	1666.67 mg/g 2000 mg/g	[100]
2.	CYCU-3	Tetracycline	428.13 mg/g	[101]
3.	CoFe₂O₄/h-BN/MIL-53 (Al)	Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin	625.00 mg/g 270.27 mg/g	[102]
4.	Cu-BDC@GrO Cu-BDC@CNT	Bisphenol A Bisphenol A	182.2 mg/g 164.1 mg/g	[103]
5.	αFe/Fe₃C	Tetracycline hydrochloride	671.14 mg/g	[104]
6.	Zn₂FeO_x@CN 500	Tetracycline	769 mg/g (25^o C)	[105]
7.	Fc-MOF	Tetracycline	736.59 mg/g (40^o C, pH=3)	[106]
8.	NPC 140,94, 105	Bisphenol A Sulfamethoxazole	757 mg/g 625 mg/g	[93]
9.	Hf-UiO-66	Cefoperazone	346 mg/g	[107]
10.	UiO-66 (Zr/Ce)	Tetracycline	536 mg/g	[108]
11.	Mn-PBA/GO	Ciprofloxacin	1826.64 mg/g	[109]
12.	NaP₅W₃₀/MIL-101-Fe/NFO	Ciprofloxacin Tetracycline	796.23 mg/g 263.15 mg/g	[110]
13.	H3PW12O40/MIL-88A(Fe)/MIL-88B(Fe)/NiFe2O4	Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin	1428.57 mg/g 344.82 mg/g	[111]
14.	CMC	Ciprofloxacin	226.8 mg/g (pH=8)	[112]
15.	NH₂-MIL-125@TpPa-SO₃H	Ciprofloxacin Norfloxacin Enoxacin Sparfloxacin	457.5 mg/g 455.7 mg/g 444.7 mg/g 429.1 mg/g	[113]
16.	Zn-Co ZIF@CS	Ciprofloxacin	348.9 mg/g	[114]
17.	Natural Clay@Co/Ni/Cu NH₂-BDC	Safinamide	500.69 mg/g	[115]
18.	WSB/HDC 550/κ car/CA RHB/HDC 550/κ car/CA	Tetracycline Tetracycline	396.09 mg/g 313 mg/g	[116]
19.	UiO-66-SO₃H	Diclofenac sodium	263 mg/g	[117]
20.	ZIF-L/FGA₂₀₀	Tetracycline	387.6 mg/g	[118]
21.	Br-MIL-53 (Fe) NO₂-MIL-53 (Fe) NH₂-MIL-53(Fe)	Tetracycline Tetracycline Tetracycline	309.6 mg/g 272.6 mg/g 271.9 mg/g	[119]
22.	Tb-MOF	Tetracycline	266.9 mg/g (25^o C)	[120]
23.	Fe-BTC@Chs/MCC	sulfamethazine Sulphanilamide	242.4 mg/g 173.0 mg/g	[121]
24.	Ni/Co-MOF@CMC Aerogel	Tetracycline hydrochloride	624.87 mg/g	[122]
25.	SH-MOF	Fluazinam Flurbiprofen	575 mg/g 435 mg/g	[122]
26.	Co-NC 1/4-900	Amodiaquine	890.23 mg/g	[124]
27.	MIL-68 (Al)/GO	Tetracycline	228 mg/g	[125]
28.	Fe₃O₄@MIL-100(Fe)	Ciprofloxacin	322.58 mg/g	[126]
29.	MOF-525 NU-1000 UiO-66	Tetracycline	807 mg/g 356 mg/g 145 mg/g	[127]
30.	ZIF-67-Acetate	Tetracycline	446.9 mg/g	[128]
31.	PCN-777	Cephalexin	442.48 mg/g	[129]
32.	MDC-1000 (1000^oC)	Sulfamethoxazole	435 mg/g	[130]
33.	MIL-53(Fe)@MWCNT	Tetracycline Oxytetracycline Chlortetracycline	364.37 mg/g (25^o C) 325.59 mg/g (25^o C) 180.68 mg/g (25^o C)	[131]
34.	ZIF-8/MWCNT	Benzoic acid	303 mg/g	[132]
35.	ZIF-8/NH₂-MIL 53 (Al)	Chlortetracycline Doxycycline Tetracycline Oxytetracycline	578 mg/g 561 mg/g 533 mg/g 526 mg/g	[133]
36.	UiO-66 (COOH)₂/GO	Tetracycline	164.91 mg/g	[134]
37.	AG-ZIF AG-Co MOF	Tetracycline Tetracycline	456.62 mg/g 105.49 mg/g	[135]
38.	PCN-222	Chloramphenicol	370 mg/g	[136]
39.	HKUST-1	Sulfachloropyridazine	384 mg/g (25^oC)	[137]
40.	MIL-101 (Cr) (90^o C)	Sulfadimethoxine Sulfamonomethoxine Sulfachloropyridazine	588.24 mg/g (25^o C) 196.08 mg/g 142.86 mg/g	[138]
41.	Flexible MIL-53 (Al)	Dimetridazole (DMZ)	467.3 mg/g	[139]
42.	ZIF-8 (Zn)	Oxytetracycline Tetracycline	312.5 mg/g (30^o C) 303 mg/g (30^o C)	[140]
43.	Ag/ZIF-67	Minocycline (MC)	938.4 mg/g	[94]
44.	ZIF-67 derived hollow CO₃S₄	Ciprofloxacin	471.7 mg/g	[141]
45.	NPC-700 (700^o C)	Ciprofloxacin	416.7 mg/g	[142]
46.	UiO-66 (Zr)	Ketorolac tromethamine	729.92 mg/g	[143]
47.	MIL-101 (Cr)-HSO₃	Ciprofloxacin	564.9 mg/g	[144]
48.	Fe₃O₄/ZTB-1	Congo red	458.0 mg/g	[145]
49.	ZIF-8/SC	Ciprofloxacin	2887 mg/g	[146]
50.	Ni-ZIF-8	Tetracycline Cefixime	770.2 mg/g 428.2 mg/g	[147]
51.	UiO-66/PDA/BC	Tetracycline Aspirin	184.3 mg/g 141.1 mg/g	[148]
52.	CS/PANI/LDH	Diclofenac sodium	618.16 mg/g	[149]
53.	UiO-66/ZIF-8/PDA-CA beads	Tetracycline	290.69 mg/g (25^o C)	[150]
54.	Defective UiO-66	Diclofenac	321 mg/g	[151]
55.	UiO-66 UiO-66-NH₂	Curcumin	393.22 mg/g 382.86 mg/g	[152]
56.	UiO-66-NH₂ UiO-66-NH₂	Diclofenac	555.0 mg/g (90^o C) 357 mg/g (25^o C)	[153]
57.	UiO-66 NH₂-UiO-66	Methotrexate	393.22 mg/g 382.86 mg/g	[154]
58.	Fe₃O₄/MIL-100 (Fe)	Diclofenac sodium	400 mg/g	[155]
59.	MIL-100 (Fe)	Diclofenac	773 mg/g	[156]
60.	UiO-66 (COOFe)₂ UiO-66 (COOCu)₂ UiO-66 (COOH)₂	Sodium diclofenac	769.1 mg/g 624.3 mg/g 480.5 mg/g	[157]
61.	MC-800 (800^oC)	Chlortetracycline	1158 mg/g	[158]
62.	Ag-NPAC	Levofloxacin	1111.11 mg/g	[159]
63.	HAP/MIL-101 (Fe)/Fe₃O₄	Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin	120.48 mg/g (25^o C) 112.35 mg/g (25^o C)	[160]
64.	ZIF-8/PAN	Tetracycline	885.24 mg/g	[161]
65.	H₃PW₁₂O₄₀/Fe₃O₄/MIL-88A (Fe)	Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin	370.37 mg/g (25^o C) 333.33 mg/g (25^o C)	[162]
66.	Fe₃O₄/HKUST-1	Ciprofloxacin Norfloxacin	538 mg/g 513 mg/g	[163]
67.	Ce-doped UiO-66	Perfloxacin Tetracycline	476.3 mg/g 368.6 mg/g	[164]
68.	UiO-66-NH₂	Norfloxacin	222.5 mg/g	[165]
69.	PAN-C/MIL 101(Fe)	Tetracycline	392.64 mg/g	[166]
70.	NH₂-PC-700 (700^oC)	Ciprofloxacin	102.5 mg/g	[167]
71.	PCN-224	Tetracycline Ciprofloxacin	354.81 mg/g 207.16 mg/g	[168]
72.	MIL-53(Fe-Cu)	Ciprofloxacin	190.40 mg/g	[169]
73.	PCDM-1000 (1000^oC)	Diclofenac Ibuprofen	400 mg/g 320 mg/g	[170]
74.	UiO-66@NH₂/TiO₂	Ampicillin	625.7 mg/g	[171]
75.	HKUST-1@Cellulose	Meloxicam	2500 mg/g	[172]
76.	Tb-MOF	Tetracycline	266.9 mg/g (25^o C)	[173]
77.	Fe₃O₄-ZIF-8/ZIF-67	Tetracycline	356.25 mg/g	[174]
78.	MOF-808 MOF-808/YSZ	Diclofenac Diclofenac	833 mg/g 796 mg/g	[175]
79.	Copper-based 3D MOF	Diclofenac	650 mg/g	[176]
80.	MIL-53(Al)	Diclofenac Naproxen	422 mg/g 297 mg/g	[177]
81.	Fe₃O₄@MOF-525	Diclofenac sodium Tetracycline	745 mg/g 277 mg/g	[178]
82.	Fe₃O₄-MOF-100(Fe)	Diclofenac	377.36 mg/g (25^o C)	[179]

Pesticides

Pesticides are pollutants found in wastewater due to an increase in agricultural needs. According to World Health Organisation, (WHO), the term pesticide means any chemical that is used to kill pests (weeds, rodents, insects, and fungi). Based on their use and abilities to kill, pesticides can be classified as: 1) Insecticide 2) Herbicide 3) Rodenticide 4) Fungicide 5) Molluscicide 6) Bactericide 7) Avicide 8) Virucide 9) Algicide 10) Acaricide 11) Miticide. They can also be classified as organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates, pyrethrin, pyrethroids, etc on the basis of the chemical nature of their active ingredients.

In addition, few miscellaneous groups worth mentioning are phenoxy acetic acid, bipyridyl, inorganic pesticide such as sulphur, copper, mercury, lead, and arsenic compounds. Pesticides play an important role in economic production of a wide range of vegetables, fruits, cereals, forage, fibres and oil crops that now constitute a large part of successful agricultural industry in many countries. It is estimated that approximately 3.5 million ton of pesticides are consumed worldwide (Steingrimdottir et al. 2018; Huang et al. 2019).

Pesticides can be used in a wide array of applications as a potential substituent such as cleaning, agriculture, protection of farm animals, kitchen gardens, enhancing the quality of livestock and agricultural crops, etc. Besides, advantages, pesticides pose a serious threat to human health and the environment such as skin and eye irritation and skin cancer, etc. Removal of pesticides is generally done using advanced techniques such as advanced oxidation, nanofiltration, photocatalysis, adsorption, activated sludge method, membrane technologies, bioreactors, ozonation, Fenton treatment, and UV based treatment, etc. [ Fadali, 2015].

S. No.	MOF	Pollutant	Efficiency	Ref
1.	2D-ZHM	Glyphosate	285.7 mg/g	[180]
2.	MOF-808	2,4 D MCPA	793 mg/g 775 mg/g	[181]
3.	Cr-MOF/MIL-101	PSNPs	800 mg/g	[182]
4.	Gold Nanospheres	Dimethoate	456 mg/g	[183]
5.	Calcium fumarate (CaFu)	Imidacloprid	467.23 mg/g	[184]
6.	ZIF-8/Zn2@SA	Carbendazim	161.8 mg/g	[185]
7.	Fe₃O₄-SiO₂@UiO 67	Glyphosate	256.54 mg/g	[186]
8.	UiO-66	PFOA	470 mg/g	[187]
9.	UiO-66/EDTMP	Polystyrene	487.225 mg/g	[188]
10.	V-MOF	Methyl parathion	383.6 mg/g	[189]
11.	MIL-53 (Cr)	2,4-D	556 mg/g	[190]
12.	AF-CMOF	PFOS	670 mg/g	[191]
13.	MMCN	PFOS PFOA	454.55 mg/g 370.37 mg/g	[192]
14.	[Cu(INA)₂] MOF@Fe₃O₄ [Cu (INA)2] MOF	Salbutamol	2000 mg/g 1450 mg/g	[193]
15.	CS-MCA/UiO 67	Glyphosate 2,4 D	675.48 mg/g 615.12 mg/g	[194]
16.	UiO 66@Fe₃O₄/UiO-66	Salicylic acid	343.5 mg/g	[195]
17.	M-CuO@Ag/PAN/ZIF 67	Paraquat Acetaminophen	1143.7 mg/g 971.6 mg/g	[196]
18.	PCN-224	PFOS PFHxS PFBS	963 mg/g 517 mg/g 395 mg/g	[197]
19.	MIL-53 (Cr)/rGO/PANI	2,4-DCP	98.4 mg/g	[198]
20.	HKUST-1	Chlorpyrifos	102 mg/g	[199]
21.	UIO-67/GO	Glyphosate	482.69 mg/g	[200]
22.	MIL-100 (Fe)	2,4 D	858.11 mg/g	[201]
23.	H UiO-66	Glyphosate	400 mg/g	[202]
24.	UiO-67 (Zr)	Glyphosate Glufosinate	537 mg/g 360 mg/g	[203]
25.	Granular AC derived from coconut shell	Malathion	909.1 mg/g	[204]
26.	40% Cu-BTC@CA	Dimethoate	321.9 mg/g	[205]
27.	ZIF-8 (Zn) ZIF-67 ZIF-8 (Zn) ZIF-67	Prothiofos Ethion Prothiofos Ethion	366.7 mg/g 279.3 mg/g 261.1 mg/g 210.8 mg/g	[206]
28.	UiO-66(Zr)	MCPA	370 mg/g	[207]
29.	Fe3O4@SiO2/UiO-66	Triclocarban Triclosan	602.40 mg/g 476.27 mg/g	[208]
30.	3DOM CLPS-g-PDMAEMA	Salicylic acid	390 mg/g	[209]
31.	PCN-206	2,4-D	470 mg/g	[210]
32.	Zr@Ox cotton	Diazinon Chlorpyrifos	464.7 mg/g 389.7 mg/g	[211]
33.	Ca-MOF@M Ca-MOF@M Ca-MOF@S Ca-MOF@S	Carbaryl Methomyl Carbaryl Methomyl	732.13 mg/g 500.36 mg/g 366.64 mg/g 179.72 mg/g	[212]
34.	Th-MOF	2,4 D	358.3 mg/g	[213]
35.	UiO-66@PA	Pirimiphos-methyl Methidathion Triazophos OPPs Quintiofos Fenthion	274.79 mg/g 256.45 mg/g 248.12 mg/g 246.55 mg/g 243.75 mg/g 209.67 mg/g	[214]
36.	Bimetallic La/Zn MOF	2,4 D	307.5 mg/g	[215]

Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-based chemicals with high vapor pressure and low water solubility, making them prone to water and environmental contamination. VOCs are a group of organic compounds that readily evaporate at room temperature. Some of the examples of substances and products that actively use and produce potential volatile organic compounds are furnishing, adhesives and glues, air fresheners, permanent markers, carbonless paper, correction fluids, dry cleaning agents, refrigerants, building materials, paints, pharmaceuticals, etc.

VOCs play a major role in water, soil, and air pollution with USEPA classifying 97/189 air pollutants as VOCs. Common exposure pathways of VOC contamination include drinking water, bathing, food, swimming, and laundry. Removal of VOCs is achieved using air stripping, incineration, biological oxidation, activated carbon adsorption, biological treatment, catalysis, and chemical oxidation methods. One of the latest trends in VOC contamination mitigation is the use of nanomaterials in reducing environmental pollution.

S. No.	Metal organic framework (MOF)	Pollutants	Efficiency	Ref
1.	MIL-101(Cr)	Acetone Benzene Toluene Ethyl benzene m-Xylene p-Xylene 0-Xylene	1291 mg/g 1291 mg/g 1096 mg/g 1105 mg/g 727 mg/g 1067 mg/g 758 mg/g		[216]
2.	CF-800 CF-800 UF-800 UF-800	Benzene Toluene Benzene Toluene	1268.1 mg/g 1181.6 mg/g 1250.8 mg/g 1069.8 mg/g		[217]
3.	C-PDA C-PDA MIL-101 MIL-101	Toluene Benzene Benzene Toluene	1254.95 mg/g 1216.17 mg/g 1173.21 mg/g 458.86 mg/g		[218]
4.	MOF-199 H/MOF-199 MOF-199/W H/MOF-199/W H/MOF-199/W H/MOF-199/W	Toluene Toluene Toluene Toluene Toluene Toluene	369.9 mg/g (80^o C) 304.7 mg/g (80^o C) 323.5 mg/g (80^o C) 269.4 mg/g (20^o C) 278.9 mg/g (0^o C) 226.7 (80^o C)		[219]
5.	MOF-177	Acetone Toluene Benzene o- Xylene m-Xylene Ethyl benzene p-Xylene	589 mg/g 585 mg/g 800 mg/g 257 mg/g 271 mg/g 271 mg/g 213 mg/g		[220]
6.	Co/MOF-74(X) Co/MOF-74 (Cl^-)	Xylene Xylene Xylene	1317.65 mg/g (Cl^-) 607.24 mg/g (NO₃^-) 474.48 mg/g (OAc^-)		[221]
7.	UiO-66@NH₂ ZIF-67 UiO-66 MOF-199	Toluene Toluene Toluene Toluene	252 mg/g (20^o C) 224 m/g (20^o C) 166 mg/g (20^o C) 159 mg/g (20^o C)		[222]
8.	PTF PF	Toluene Toluene	383.94 mg/g 372.50 mg/g		[223]
9.	Thermally activated ZIF-67	Toluene	414.5 mg/g (250^o C)		[224]

Heavy metals

Heavy metals are toxic elements having a specific gravity greater than 5 g/cm³. [225] Sources of heavy metals are refineries, power plants, petroleum fuels, nuclear power stations, high transmission lines, plastic industries, textiles, microelectronics, wood preservation, paper processing plants, tanneries, pesticides, fertilizers, etc. Heavy metal toxicity depends on several factors such as dose, route of exposure, chemical species, age, gender, genetics, nutritional status, etc.

World Health Organization (WHO) has set guidelines for acceptable levels of lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) in wastewater, which are 0.065 mg/L and 0.01 mg/L respectively. [226] Heavy metals are extensively used and produced in agriculture, industries, domestic use, mining, tanneries, foundries, smelters, metal-based factories, and medical and technological applications. Natural phenomenon such as weathering, and volcanic eruption also contributes to heavy metal pollution.

S. No.	MOF	Pollutant	Efficiency	Ref
1.	Fe₃O₄@COOH@MIL-125/Oxalic acid	Pb (II)	465.12 mg/g	[227]
2.	Fe₁Co₁ MOF-74	Au (III)	3078 mg/g	[228]
3.	CAU-17	SeO₃^2-	255.3 mg/g	[229]
4.	Nonanuclear UPC-183	SeO₃^2-	308.39 mg/g	[230]
5.	D-D/UiO-66	Pb (II)	667.04 mg/g	[231]
6.	UiO-66@200-FA	As (V)	132.5 mg/g	[232]
7.	BNMG-1	Nd3+ Eu3+ Dy3+ Tb3+ Y3+	355.8 mg/g 333 mg/g 331 mg/g 329 mg/g 323.1 mg/g	[233]
8.	BD-MOF(Ti)@CS/ Fe₃O₄	Pb(II)	944.9 mg/g	[234]
9.	UiO-66@NH₂/(MAA)₂	Hg (II)	890 mg/g	[235]
10.	Zr/Ce UiO-66@NH₂	U (VI)	611.33 mg/g (55^o C) 376.8 mg/g (25^o C)	[236]
11.	NH₂@MIP-SO₃H	Cd Cu Hg Pb	745.83 mg/g 673.67 mg/g 589.85 mg/g 482.66 mg/g	[237]
12.	CNF γ AlOOH	U(VI) As(III) Pb(II)	339 mg/g 105 mg/g 100 mg/g	[81]
13.	Ca-MOF@LSB	Cu²⁺	484.2 mg/g	[238]
14.	CPBr-MIL-88A@AmGO	Cr(VI)	306.75 mg/g	[239]
15.	Ag/Tipe	I₂ CH₃I	3.31 g/g (75^o C) 0.55 g/g (75^o C)	[240]
16.	Metal–organic framework (MOF) decorated with the O– group and N═N unit	Pb (II)	463.52 mg/g	[241]
17.	Functionalised MOF decorated with O^-group	Pb (II)	616.64 mg/g	[242]
18.	Manganese dioxide formed in situ	Pb (II) Cd (II)	917 mg/g 176 mg/g	[243]
19.	Fe-BTC/PDA	Hg (II) Pb (II)	1634 mg/g 394 mg/g	[244]
20.	66E-NFMs	Ce³⁺ La³⁺ Hg²⁺ Cd²⁺ Cu²⁺ Pb²⁺	307.7 mg/g 293.3 mg/g 446.4 mg/g 343.6 mg/g 418.4 mg/g 384.6 mg/g	[245]
21.	GO@αCD-PPy/NC	Cr (VI)	666.67 mg/g (45^o C) 625 mg/g (35^o C) 606.06 mg/g (25^o C)	[246]
22.	UiO-66@EDA	Pb²⁺ Cd²⁺ Cu²⁺	243.90 mg/g 217.39 mg/g 208.33 mg/g	[247]
23.	Cu-MOF/Fe₃O₄	Pb²⁺	219 mg/g	[248]
24.	NH₂-MIL-125(Ti)@TpPa-1	Eu³⁺ UO₂²⁺	593.97 mg/g 536.73 mg/g	[249]
25.	Zr-TDA MOF	Hg(II) Pb (II)	605.5 mg/g (25^o C) 212.7 mg/g (25^o C)	[250]
26.	DMTD	Hg (II)	670.5 mg/g	[251]
27.	Fe/Mg MIL-88B	AS (V)	303.6 mg/g	[252]
28.	Fe-Mn MOF-74	As (III)	161.6 mg/g	[253]
29.	1D Fe-gallic-acid MOFs	Cr (VI)	1709.2 mg/g	[254]
30.	γ-CD MOF-NPC	Cd (II)	140.85 mg/g	[255]
31.	ATP@C	Pb (II) Cr (VI)	263.83 mg/g 177.74 mg/g	[256]
32.	STB/MOF-808@SH	Hg (II)	228.38 mg/g	[257]
33.	UTSA-74@FeSO₄	Cr₂O₇^2-	796 mg/g	[258]
34.	UiO-66@36-TFA	As (V)	200 mg/g	[259]
35.	PEI-PD/GO	Pb²⁺ Hg²⁺ Cd²⁺ Cu²⁺	197 mg/g 110 mg/g 106 mg/g 87 mg/g	[260]
36.	UiO-66@NH₂/silica	Cr₂O₇²⁻ Cr (VI)	277.4 mg/g 133.4 mg/g	[261]
37.	MOF-2 (Cd)	Pb (II) Cu (II)	769.23 mg/g 434.78 mg/g	[262]
38.	UiO-66-NH₂@PAM-PET	Pb(II)	711.99 mg/g	[263]
39.	Ni₅₀Co₅₀ LDH/UiO-66/NH₂@NC	Ti(I)	601.3 mg/g (20^o C)	[264]
40.	Fe₂Co₁ MOF-74	As(V) As(III)	292.29 mg/g 266.52 mg/g	[265]
41.	3D Calcium fumarate MOF (CaFu)	Cd²⁺	781.2 mg/g	[184]
42.	MIL-100(Fe)	AsO₄ ^3-	110 mg/g	[266]
43.	Cd-MOF	Cr₂O₇^2-	228 mg/g	[267]
44.	Natural Clay@Co/Ni/Cu-NH₂-BDC	Cd²⁺	550.69 mg/g	[114]
45.	SDU/CP-7	Iodine (vapour) Iodine (solution)	1100 mg/g 563.0 mg/g	[77]
46.	Zn-MOF@MCHS	Cu (II)	523.56 mg/g	[268]
47.	MOF-801/ Sodium-alginate	Pb (II)	375.48 mg/g	[269]
48.	Ni₅₀Co₅₀ Layerd double hydroxide/UiO-66 (Zr)@(COOH)₂	Hg (II) Ni (II)	509.8 mg/g 441.0 mg/g	[270]
49.	Cu-MOF@SO4^2-	Hg (II)	989.19 mg/g	[271]
50.	Zr-MSA Zr-MSA/DCS	Hg²⁺ Hg²⁺	2181.5 mg/g 312.4 mg/g	[272]
51.	ALPF	Au (III)	1463 mg/g	[273]
52.	Zn(Bim)(OAc)	Cu (II) Pb (II)	335.57 mg/g 253.8 mg/g	[274]
53.	Mercapto succinic@MOF	Hg (II) Pb (II)	1080 mg/g (pH=4) 510 mg/g (pH=4)	[275]
54.	Cu-MOF	Pb (II)	738.65 mg/g	[276]
55.	Ti-MOF@SH	Hg²⁺ Pb²⁺	943 mg/g (25^o C) 341 mg/g (25^o C)	[277]
56.	COOH-GO/CA@IDA	Pb(II)	613.30 mg/g	[278]
57.	CYCS/CNC	Pb(II)	334.92 mg/g	[279]
58.	GO@Fe₃O₄ i.Carr	Pb (II)	454.6 mg/g	[280]
59.	HSB-W₁₅-NS	Fe (III)	250.81 mg/g	[281]
60.	Co-CNSP	Hg (II) U (VI) Pb (II) Cu (II)	716 mg/g 661 mg/g 534 mg/g 325 mg/g	[282]
61.	2D-NCS	HgCl₂	1698 mg/g	[283]

Conclusion

Metal Organic Framework (MOF) was discussed in detail-like structure, properties, synthetic procedures, characterisation techniques, publishing trends, uses and applications, wastewater statistics and some common and important pollutants in wastewater. A list of possible highly efficient materials for water remediation is also included with the efficiency. There is a critical need to assess present and potential methods to combat water scarcity, water use efficiency, water stress, water management, safely managed drinking water, ambient water quality and provision of proper sanitation and hygiene challenges.

Moreover, industries, academics, governments, stakeholders, locals and policy makers should come hand in hand to combat sustainable development goal 6 challenges 6.1.1 proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services, 6.2.1 proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water, 6.3.1 proportion of domestic and industrial safely treated wastewater flow, 6.3.2 proportion of bodies of water with good ambient water quality, 6.4.1 change in water use efficiency over time 6.4.2 level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources and 6.5.1 degree of integrated water resources management implementation, etc.

Limitations of using Metal organic framework (MOF) as a potential material for degradation of water pollutants are, there is no proper guidelines and initiatives to discard MOF, certain MOFs have low stability in presence of moisture, thermal method utilizes lots of solvent that is harmful to the environment, production of MOF with high thermal and mechanical strength, selectivity, permeability, agglomeration and green materials having high LD₅₀ values for water. Method of synthesis can be shifted to alternative methods like ball milling, laser ablation, chemical vapour deposition, etc. Potential applications can be summarized as CO₂ adsorption at high temperature, drug delivery, sensors, 3D printing and nanochips, etc.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

MOF	Metal Organic Framework
SDG	Sustainable development goal
ZIF	Zeolitic imidazolate framework
POP	Persistent Organic pollutant
PAH	Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
DMW	Demineralized water
WHO	World health organization
PFAS	Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
PPCP	Personal care products
CV	Cyclic voltammetry
AOP	Advanced oxidation process
PCB	Polychlorinated biphenyls
EDC	Endocrine disruptors

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