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Exploring Renewable Energy Policy, Market Dynamics, and Food Security in Ghana: A Systematic Review of Opportunities and Barriers

Submitted:

20 April 2026

Posted:

22 April 2026

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Abstract
Energy stands as an integral thread, intricately woven into the grand tapestry of a nation's progress, forming the very fabric of development. While extensive research has shed light on energy production and consumption in industrialized nations, there has been a noticeable dearth of focus on renewable energy research and development in the realm of developing countries. These nations, including Ghana, find themselves bound to fossil fuels, with scant regard for the inherent value of traditional fuels like biomass. Ghana, heavily depends on imported fossil fuels, which is not sustainable in the long run. The pollution caused by these fuels is a major concern, and their increasing cost hampers economic growth. However, there is a glimmer of hope as renewable energy sources are gaining prominence. Biomass, biofuel, wind, and solar energy are emerging as promising alternatives for the future. In this study, we embark on an exploratory study into these renewable energy sources, and how they are intricately entwined with policies, market dynamics, and the impact on food security. The government of Ghana has fostered a conducive environment for the renewable energy sector, epitomized by the establishment of the novel feed-in tariffs (FITs) program. Adept institutions have developed acts and legislations, exemplified by the visionary Renewable Energy Act (832) of 2011, paving a path for progress. The research showed that the use of renewable energy sources has increased gradually during the previous decades. However, limitations on exploitation remain owing to factors like high technology costs, little funding, and gaps in knowledge.
Keywords: 
biomass
;  
renewable energy
;  
solar
;  
tidal
;  
waste-to-energy
;  
wind
Subject: 
Environmental and Earth Sciences  -   Sustainable Science and Technology

Introduction

Energy plays a vital role in the development of a country, serving as a crucial resource [1]. Renewable energy production and use have been the subject of many studies in developed countries, while in poorer countries, the environmental impact of fuels has received less attention. [2]. Furthermore, renewable energy research in developing countries has often overlooked the significance of traditional fuels like biomass [3]. Therefore, given the limitations and potential adverse economic, social, and political consequences associated with non-renewable energy, effective planning in the area of exploration and utilization of renewable energy, should become paramount in developing nations [4]. In light of the proposal to transition towards a lower-carbon energy market in the future, the choice of energy sources will depend on several factors, including cost, technical feasibility, available suitable sites, and the need for energy storage or load balancing [5,6].
According to a study by [7] fossil fuels currently account for over 80.3% of global primary energy consumption, with the transportation sector alone responsible for 57.7% of this consumption. Consequently, fossil fuels are the primary contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [8]. The extensive extraction of fossil fuels to meet various energy demands has resulted in a significant reduction in reserves, thereby posing a potential threat of fuel exhaustion in the coming decades. This depletion has also led to substantial price increases and geopolitical conflicts, prompting governments to express concerns about energy security [9].
Situated along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, Ghana shares borders with Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and Ivory Coast to the west. Ghana, known for its endowment in natural resources, was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa south of the Sahara to achieve independence [10,11,12]. The country's current population stands at approximately 34 million [13,14]. Ghana possesses limited oil reserves, necessitating heavy reliance on imported petroleum fuel, which strains the nation's economy [15]. This dependence on fossil fuels renders energy security vulnerable due to supply uncertainties. However, Ghana has abundant renewable energy resources such as hydropower, biomass, biofuels, wind, and solar energy, which hold great potential for future exploitation [16].
In the energy sector, a thorough review of the literature in Ghana reveals significant gaps in terms of policy, market conditions, and food security. One crucial concern is the gap in policy. A study conducted by [17] analysed renewable energy policies in Ghana and highlighted the need for compressive and long-term strategies. While some policies were in place, they lacked clear targets, incentives, and regulatory framework necessary for effective implementation of renewable energy promotion and adoption. Additionally, market conditions in Ghana’s energy market present notable challenges. A study by [18] reviewed the structure of the electricity market identifying gaps such as competition, pricing mechanisms, and market transparency. The study failed to establish the reforms required for the creation of a more competitive market and enhance transparency to attract investments. Another critical gap lies in food security. [19] found that limited access to reliable and affordable energy services, particularly in rural areas, had adverse effects on agricultural productivity and overall food security in the country. To address the aforementioned gaps, this research would evaluate and highlight insights and also proffer strategies to inform policy development, market reforms, and energy access initiatives that are imperative to ultimately foster sustainable development and promote food security in Ghana.

Materials and Method

This review primarily aims to delve into the market conditions as well as policy of renewable energy in Ghana while also considering its impact on the environment and food security. The study utilized a systematic review methodology to enable a thorough assessment of the suitability of the research findings for a more reliable basis for decision-making.

Research Method

To advance our understanding of unlocking and utilizing the renewable energy potential of Ghana effectively, the present study consists of a systematic literature review (SLR) with a specific focus on policy, market conditions, and their impact on food security. Systematic literature review (SLR) is a means of identifying, evaluating and interpreting available research relevant to a particular research question or topic area [20]. The design of the SLR reported in this paper started in December 2022. This comes after several refinements and improvements. The following subsections present the search strategy of the review, searched database, search terms, inclusion/exclusion criteria and the quality criteria of the systematic review.

Search Strategy

The study used the guidelines of [20] for carrying out this SLR. We began with the formal search strategy to explore the articles relevant to the research objectives and the research questions. To collect the appropriate articles, the search space was designed to cover the prominent databases listed in Table 1. At first, the articles were retrieved and afterwards examined further for other significant articles (i.e. snowballing) [20]. Then the inclusion and exclusion criteria were used in two distinct rounds (Stage 1 & Stage 2) as explained in the section below.

Search String

The search terms were derived from the key terms used in the topic area and the objectives of the review. A number of pilot searches were performed to refine the keywords in the search string using trial and error. The terms whose inclusion did not yield additional papers in the automatic search were removed.
The following search string was used:
(“renewable energy” OR “renewable energy policy in Ghana” OR “use of renewable energy in Ghana” OR “use of biomass” OR “environmental consequence of biomass” OR “market conditions of biomass” OR “impact of renewable energy on food security” OR “biomass” OR “hydropower” OR “wind” OR “biofuel” OR “waste-to-energy”) AND (“energy sources in Ghana” OR “energy demand in Ghana”) AND (“energy crises” OR “barriers of renewable energy in Ghana” OR “clean energy” OR “electricity need” OR “greenhouse gas emission”).

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To select the appropriate studies for inclusion in the review, the meta-data and the abstracts of the papers were reviewed. The following inclusion criteria were then applied where selected papers were peer-reviewed; thus, articles that are written in English language, empirical research papers, and research publications between the year 2010 to 2022. Papers that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded from the study. To filter out irrelevant papers, the exclusion criteria were implemented in four steps. Step 1: papers not focusing explicitly on renewable energy. Step 2: papers that do not discuss the policy and regulation about renewable energy technologies in Ghana. Step 3: studies that do not discuss the impact of renewable energy on food security in Ghana. Step 4: grey literature [20], for example, working papers, literature reviews, project deliverables, review papers, non-English papers and thesis were the exclusion criteria applied. Therefore, the final selection consisted of 51 articles.

Conducting the Review

In this section, we present the findings of the search and extraction of information from relevant sources and databases.

Article Search and Selection

By following the search strategy explained in the section above, the selected electronic databases were searched to retrieve the studies. The initial search returned 347 papers as shown in Table 1. The inclusion and exclusion criteria (stage 1) were followed as explained above, and a detailed examination of the titles and abstracts of the articles was performed and ended up with 125 studies. Afterwards, in the second stage using the exclusion criteria (step 1 to step 4), the preselected studies were assessed by a second researcher (co-author) and a third one (an experienced and independent researcher). A face-to-face meeting was then arranged to review and reach consensus on any agreements and disagreements among the researchers in their assessments. Finally, 51 papers were selected for critical review as shown in Table 1.

Data Extraction and Analysis

By following the guidelines in [20], we conducted a data extraction process to identify the relevant information from the selected 51 studies after round 2. This data extraction process included the following steps: First, using the Overleaf reference manager, we arranged a database of publications and recorded the relevant information about ideas, contributions, and findings of each of the 51 studies in a spreadsheet. From each publication, the following data were extracted: review date, title, authors, references; database, relevance to the theme, i.e., untapped potential of renewable energy, renewable energy policy in Ghana, market condition and public opinion on biomass, and year of publication. After the extraction process, content analysis was done to characterize the focus of each study. Content analysis has been used in systematic reviews [21,22]. The result of data extraction was assessed by using interrater agreement between two researchers to ensure that the results are replicable and reliable. The percentage agreement for this study is ‘HIGH” which is considered to be a good agreement (see Table 2).

Quality of Study

The quality criteria for this systematic review is similar to that adopted in other SLRs [22] (see Table 2). The first criterion was (Q1): if the aims and objectives of the conducted research were clearly defined. This question was positively answered for 92% of the studies. The second criterion was (Q2): if the research context was adequately addressed. This question was positively answered by 98% of the studies. The last criterion was (Q3): if the outcome of the research was sufficient for our research purpose. For the quality measures the heuristic scores were established by a group of two experienced researchers and validated by an independent reviewer.

Finding and Discussions

The Renewable Energy Situation in Ghana

Ghana, like many other African countries, has significant untapped renewable energy potential [23]. Bioenergy, the sun, the wind, water, and waves all count. In recent decades, hydropower has been an extremely important part of Ghana's overall energy system [24]. Since 2015, the only hydro power plants contributing to the national grid; Akosombo, Kpong, and Bui hydro plants supplied a combined 1580 MW, demonstrating Ghana's substantial hydropower potential [25,26]. The Sustainable Energy for All Action plan for Ghana estimates that there are now 22 small and 17 medium unexploited viable hydro sites with capacities ranging from 15 MW to 100 MW [39]. However, these renewable energy resources are unable to deliver enough electricity to augment thermal energy generation, resulting in consistent nationwide power outages. To address this difficulty, the government established specific policies and targets to increase renewable energy generation to 10% by 2020 as part of an effort to boost the proportion of renewable energy to the generating mix [17]. However, this aim has been missed, necessitating a more deliberate strategy in order to meet the established target in the near future.
Solar energy is a particularly eye-catching and growing renewable energy source in Ghana for a variety of environmental and social reasons. However, the solar sector has not progressed much due to people's aversion to change and their reliance on traditional energy sources (Angelou & Roy, 2019). According to [27], Ghana has a solar energy potential of 35 exajoules (EJ). The 155 MW solar plant project that Ghana has begun should enhance the country's energy generating capacity by 6% [25]. In addition, by 2020, it was projected to contribute around 20% towards the nation's goal of generating 10% of its power from renewable energy sources [16]. Furthermore, in 2016, development began on the Nzema project in Ghana's Western Region, which was to be home to the continent's largest solar energy plant to supply energy to more than 100,000 homes once it's done [28]. If the project goes as planned, the 155 MW facility would add 6% energy to the country's total power generating capacity. In addition, the Ghana Energy Commission launched a solar rooftop programme in 2016, that intends to target residential facilities, commercial offices, hospitality industries, and small businesses in an effort to ensure the development and utilisation of renewable energy resources and alleviate the challenges in the power sector. It was reported that self-generation using solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies placed on the rooftops of these facilities would help lower the daily national peak load by 200 MW [29]. This helps slow down the loss of forests and the production of carbon dioxide, two major contributors to the degradation of the environment as a result of unregulated harvesting of biomass for energy production in the country [30].
On the other hand, despite its potential in the automotive and agricultural sectors, biofuel has received less attention than competing renewable energy sources [32]. Energy crops like parkia, jatropha and oil palm fruit give Ghana a great opportunity to produce biofuels from biomass. According to a recent report, Ghana is the biggest producer of jatropha-based biodiesel in Africa [31]. The country is also one of the pioneers in Africa in the manufacturing of biodiesel from oil palm fruit, which was the focus of a separate exploratory project [32]. Over 6 MW is generated by biomass co-generation units that burn byproducts from sawmills and oil palms [33]. It is believed that energy security, trade balances, social and economic growth in rural communities, and better resource and waste management are just some of the other areas where bioenergy might make a significant impact. Renewable bioenergy has the potential to provide both power and fuel with lower environmental hazards than fossil oil if it is developed sustainably [33].
Furthermore, although wind energy is not necessarily the most practical alternative presently across the country, it is another promising power source if sited in the coastal regions of the country. According to the Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) National Report [39], Ghana has a gross wind resource potential of 5640 MW. Average annual wind speeds along the coast and on some islands range between 4-6 m/s at 50 m above sea level, hence the wind potential in Ghana is considered low. However, there are locations close to the Togo border where the wind speed often exceeds 8 m/s [34]. Between 2011 and 2013, eight locations along the coast had wind resource evaluations performed. The findings illustrated the typical monthly wind speed at an elevation of 60 m. According to [23], this demonstrates the possibility for the construction of about 300 MW of wind farm capacity. It has been predicted that Ghana's coastline has a gross wind power potential of 2000 MW, according to the 9–9.9 m/s wind speeds that have been measured there [14]. Especially in the eastern coastal areas and the mountainous regions, where average wind speeds are higher, there is potential for the development of wind-generating projects in Ghana. The current goal of the Volta River Authority's wind project is to put in place between 100 and 150 MW of capacity [35]. In 2015, the Energy Commission also issued provisional licenses for the construction of wind farms with a total installed capacity of around 480 MW along the coast of Ghana [35].
Energy harvesting techniques that utilise ocean/tidal waves are very new to Ghana [36]. Only one firm, TCs Energy, has shown interest so far. In late 2013, the firm secured building permission for its 2016 Ada Foah, Greater Accra Region, opening. Tidal energy is generated by using generators. Power is generated by harnessing the kinetic energy of the ebbing and surging of the ocean tides using large underwater turbines installed in regions with strong tidal motions [36]. The Ada Estuary in Ghana has been found to be an ideal site for an underwater hydro plant, according to studies [37]. Furthermore, waste-to-energy is another viable alternative given that over 60% of Ghana's waste is organic in nature [38].

Ghana’s Renewable Energy Market

Over the course of the past decade, the Ghanaian economy has undergone a multitude of significant and transformative developments, with remarkable progress observed across various sectors, as extensively discussed by [40]. Notably, in the year 2011, the economy experienced an unprecedented surge in growth, which can be predominantly attributed to the dynamic and fiercely competitive business environment that was rapidly evolving, particularly within the private sector, as astutely pointed out by [41]. The government of Ghana, recognizing the immense potential and the paramount importance of the renewable energy sector, has taken proactive and resolute measures to create an exceptionally favorable and conducive business climate in the energy sector, as extensively detailed by [42]. These pivotal initiatives encompass the establishment of explicit feed-in tariffs (FITs) that serve as powerful incentives to stimulate and galvanize the generation of energy from renewable sources. Furthermore, the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre has been strategically established as a centralized and comprehensive platform that diligently promotes and supports investments in the realm of renewable energy [42]. These visionary and far-reaching initiatives unequivocally and resoundingly demonstrate the unwavering commitment of the government to harness the boundless potential of renewable energy and to create an environment that is optimally conducive to its exponential growth and proliferation. It is crucial to underscore the fact that two pivotal and interrelated market conditions, namely the liberalization of the economy and the imperative of energy security, which encompasses the realms of competition within the industrial sector and the preservation of the environment, play an integral and indispensable role in shaping the landscape of renewable energy, as cogently argued by [43].
Despite the undeniable abundance of renewable energy resources that are readily available in Ghana, it is disheartening to note that the current utilization rate remains dismally below the threshold of 10%, as extensively documented by [16]. However, it is heartening to observe that concerted and relentless efforts are being made to enhance the efficiency and utilization of these invaluable renewable energy sources through the judicious and strategic implementation of a diverse array of approaches. The government, driven by an unwavering and unequivocal determination, has set its sights on surpassing the ambitious target of 10% renewable energy consumption that was enshrined in the Renewable Energy Act of 2011, as meticulously elucidated by [44]. These multifaceted and meticulously crafted measures are designed to capitalize on the vast and untapped potential of renewable energy sources and to foster their widespread adoption and integration throughout the length and breadth of the country, thereby ushering in a new era of sustainable and environmentally conscious energy policies and practices.

Renewable Energy Policy

Energy is widely acknowledged as a critical component for a country's social and economic growth [16]. Energy usage, availability at affordable costs, and concerns about attaining sustainable development are all important aspects to be considered in policy formulation. The Renewable Energy Act, 2011 (Act 832) governs Ghana's energy policy [27]. This legislation recognizes renewable energy as an infinite source of energy supply. In Ghana, renewable energy sources include hydro, ocean energy, biofuel, landfill gas, biomass, wind, sun, and geothermal. A list of nine (9) policy papers, initiatives, and legislative instruments relating to Ghana's renewable energy sector that were reviewed in this research is provided below. All nine (9) policy papers examined provide a wide policy framework for incorporating renewable energy into the national energy mix.
  • Renewable Energy Act (2011) Act 832: This legislation provides a legal framework for the development and promotion of renewable energy in Ghana [16].
  • National Environmental Policy: This policy addresses various environmental issues, including the promotion of renewable energy sources [45]
  • Ghana National Energy Policy: This policy sets out the government's vision and strategies for the energy sector, including the promotion of renewable energy sources [46].
  • Sustainable Energy for All (Se4All) Action Agenda: This agenda aims to achieve universal access to modern energy services, including renewable energy, in Ghana [17].
  • Renewable Energy Master Plan (2019): This plan provides a roadmap for the development and integration of renewable energy sources into Ghana's energy mix.
  • Ghana National Climate Change Policy (2013): This policy addresses climate change mitigation and adaptation measures, including the promotion of renewable energy.
In addition to these policies, several legislative instruments are relevant to the energy sector in Ghana, including:
  • Local Government Act, 2016 Act 936: This act outlines the roles and responsibilities of local government authorities, including their involvement in energy-related matters [47].
  • Environmental Protection Agency Act (1994, Act 490): This act establishes the Environmental Protection Agency and provides a legal framework for environmental management, including renewable energy [48].
  • Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999 (LI 1652): These regulations outline the procedures for conducting environmental assessments for projects, including those related to renewable energy [49].
These policy documents and legislative instruments provide a comprehensive framework for the development and promotion of renewable energy in Ghana, addressing environmental, energy, and climate change considerations (See Table 3).
As part of the policy review process, gaps were identified for interventions to enhance the policy implementation process for the renewable energy sector of Ghana. Renewable energy policies respond to requirements for improving infrastructure and services in the environment to ensure that energy can be produced, distributed and used efficiently in a form that has no adverse health, safety and environmental impact. Some challenges of concern identified in the reviewed policy documents that could serve as renewable energy promotion and adoption barriers at present are presented in Table 3. To remedy the energy barriers and challenges in Table 3, this study presents biomass as a suitable renewable energy source that, if given the necessary support, will spur growth and development, particularly in the provision of reliable energy at a cost-effective rate for all persons in all geographical locations of the country while improving food security.

Snapshot of Ghana’s Renewable Energy Sources

Biomass

Biomass, which includes wood fuel, charcoal, agricultural waste, and palm kernel shells, plays a significant role in Ghana's energy consumption. Approximately 40% of households in Ghana rely on wood for cooking, while around 33.7% use charcoal [50]. Charcoal production is concentrated in the middle and northern regions of the country, where it is produced and distributed over long distances [51]. However, the consumption of biomass has been decreasing compared to electricity and petroleum, dropping from 54% in 2005 to 43% in 2010 [52]. This indicates a gradual shift towards alternative and sustainable energy sources such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and biogas. Moreover, there is significant potential for utilizing organic waste materials to produce charcoal sustainably on a large scale. For example, the Ghana Oil Development Company has implemented a 2.5 MW power generation capacity that utilizes waste as feedstock, powering their factory operations [35].

Tidal and Wave Energy

According to [53] wave energy is one of the least expensive renewable energy sources. Wave energy is more predictable than other kinds of energy, with a higher possibility of being dispatched to an electrical grid system. Because waves are continually in motion and never stop, it is a more trustworthy source than others [53].
Although tidal and wave energy technologies are relatively new to Ghana, there have been recent developments in this area. TC's Energy, for example, initiated a project to harness tidal and wave energy and obtained permits to construct a facility in Ada Foah, Greater Accra Region, in 2013. The company has constructed a 14 MW wave power facility using submerged surge technology, which has been operational since 2016 [54].

Hydropower

Ghana has an estimated hydropower potential of 2,000 MW. The Akosombo and Kpong hydroelectric plants on the White Volta, as well as the Bui plant on the Black Volta, currently generate a total capacity of 1,580 MW [26]. According to the Ghana Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan, there are approximately 22 sites suitable for mini-hydro development in Ghana, with capacities ranging from 5.6 MW to 24.5 MW [55]. Currently, there are 17 hydroelectric plants with capacities exceeding 10 MW each located on the Black Volta, White Volta, Oti River, Pra River, and Ankobra Rivers. However, the Akosombo, Kpong, and Bui dams are the only plants currently supplying electricity to the national grid [11]. The lack of essential data to identify viable sites has been a major challenge hindering the development of this energy source. To address this, the government, through the Swiss Government-funded Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Project (HSAP), has partnered with donors such as the Swiss Government to assess the sustainability of six hydropower sites on the Black and White Volta Rivers. This initiative has the potential to generate up to 362 MW of capacity [56].

Waste-to-Energy

Ghana has a considerable amount of organic waste, with organic waste constituting over 60% of the waste stream in Accra alone [16]. This waste can be effectively used for energy production through processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion and biomass gasification, which generate biogas for electricity generation. Faecal matter and cow dung can also serve as feedstock in certain applications. The Safi Sana project, partly funded through the Ghana WASH Window initiative, adopts a unique approach by combining faecal matter and organic waste to produce biogas energy. Additionally, there are open dumps in Accra and other areas that contain landfill gas, which can be converted into usable energy sources [57].

Biofuels

The utilization of biofuels as a substitute for conventional diesel in automobiles and industrial engines is not yet widespread in Ghana [35]. However, the government has been actively promoting the development of biodiesel using the Jatropha plant. Farmers have shifted their focus to cultivating Jatropha instead of traditional crops like cassava or maize. Initially, the results were discouraging due to concerns about food security and the negative impact on farmers' income [58]. In 2010, the Government of Ghana introduced a draft policy on bioenergy, revising the targets set in 2006. The new targets aimed to achieve a blend of 10% biofuel (E10, B10) in fuel by 2020 and 20% of both gasoline (E20) and biodiesel (B20) by 2030. The policy objectives included removing institutional barriers, fostering a competitive market, providing regulatory support, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions [35]. Ultimately, the policy aims to position Ghana as a net exporter of biofuel in the medium-to-long term [59].

Wind

The Energy Commission of Ghana's research indicates significant potential for generating energy from wind resources [27]. Data from the Ministry of Energy shows that wind speeds are particularly favourable at heights exceeding 50 meters, with some exceptional locations experiencing wind speeds of 8.4 to 9.9 m/s [14]. The most promising wind resources are found along the narrow stretch of the eastern coastline, as well as in the hilltops near Volta Lake and the border with Togo. Currently, several companies have established wind farms in Ghana, including Upwind Akplabnya Ltd., which completed a 225 MW wind farm in Nigo Prampram, Greater Accra Region, by the end of 2016. The Volta River Authority (VRA) has also developed 100-150 MW of wind power generation plants in the southern part of Ghana. Additionally, partnerships between companies such as NEK from Sweden and Accra-based Atlantic International Holding Co., Ghana, are working on a 50 MW wind energy project [60].

Solar Energy

Ghana is blessed with abundant solar resources, with an average monthly solar radiation ranging from 4.4 to 5.6 kWh/m2/day and an annual sunshine duration between 1,800 and 3,000 hours. Until recently, solar energy had been underutilized in the country, both for photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar water heaters. However, the Government of Ghana has taken steps to harness this resource, such as using solar energy for street lighting (e.g., Accra-Nsawam Road). For instance, a 20 MW solar PV farm was established in Onyadze, Gomoa East, to provide power services to nearby communities. Several companies with licenses have also expressed interest in establishing solar farms in Ghana. The VRA has installed a 2 MW small-scale solar PV grid-connected plant in the Upper East Region [16,44].

Challenges of the Implementation of Renewable Energy in Ghana

Ghana possesses abundant renewable energy resources, including sunlight and biomass, which offer great potential for energy generation [61]. However, the successful conversion of these resources into usable energy has encountered several challenges, including but not limited to: first, the pressing concern of dwindling fossil fuel reserves which raises worries about energy security, necessitating the exploration of alternative energy sources [62]. Secondly, the high upfront costs associated with implementing renewable energy systems have hindered their widespread adoption [63]. The substantial initial investment required acts as a financial barrier to scaling up renewable energy technologies.
Moreover, insufficient funds and a lack of technical expertise pose additional obstacles. Limited financial resources and shortage of technical capacity impede the development and deployment of renewable energy projects [63]. Additionally, the expenses associated with renewable energy systems are often borne by households and investors who may be unaware of the long-term benefits due to market circumstances [64]. This lack of awareness negatively impacts the adoption and utilization of renewable energy sources. Lastly, the lack of access to capital from local markets and indigenous investors further hampers progress. The limited availability of ready-made solutions in the local market also leads to heightened competition and, consequently lowers uptake of local energy resources [65].
The Ghanaian government has demonstrated a strong commitment to renewable energy development and promotion, as highlighted in the Ghana renewable energy master Plan [66,67]. However, investment in the industry has been constrained by challenges in the capital market [44]. There is lack of clarity regarding the available resources for various renewable energy technologies. While solar energy has seen relatively higher adoption, there are gaps in the development of wind, biomass, waste-to-energy, and tidal energy systems [68].
A scarcity of qualified individuals capable of conducting technical and feasibility studies, as well as managing renewable energy projects, poses another hurdle [70]. Stakeholders involved in the power sector, including regulators, financiers, domestic investors, and national technology and service providers, often lack sufficient understanding and experience in developing and deploying renewable energy technologies [69]. There are also, difficulties in acquiring equipment and spare parts for certain technologies, as well as challenges related to facility operations and maintenance, further impede progress [71]. Additionally, public resistance to change and limited public knowledge about renewable energy technologies, partly due to inadequate promotion from the media, contribute to the obstacles faced [72].

Strategies for Promotion and Adoption of Renewable Energy (Biomass) in Ghana

Several initiatives may be adopted to increase the contribution and acceptance of renewable energy:
  • Public awareness and education initiatives should be promoted to raise understanding of renewable energy technology, their advantages, and their role in climate change mitigation. Community workshops, seminars, and instructional programmes at schools and colleges can help with this. Encourage media outlets to collaborate in order to spread information and promote awareness.
  • Provision of financial incentives and subsidies to people, businesses, and organizations' who invest in renewable energy installations is another effective way of promoting renewable energy adoption in Ghana. Using tools such as tax credits, subsidies, and low-interest loans can all lower upfront costs and make renewable energy more financially viable. Government assistance and regulations should be intended to encourage the use of renewable energy while also attracting private investment.
  • Streamlined Authorization and Licensing: Enhance the efficiency of the Energy Commission (EC) by implementing streamlined processes for authorization, certification, and licensing related to renewable energy production and transmission. This includes reducing bureaucratic barriers, simplifying procedures, and providing clear guidelines to facilitate the entry of new renewable energy projects.
  • To ensure effective representation and engagement at the regional and local levels, the Energy Commission can appoint agents who will serve as their representatives. These agents would act as intermediaries, bridging the gap between the Commission and the local communities. Their role would encompass various responsibilities such as facilitating awareness campaigns, assisting with project development, and fostering the active participation of local stakeholders in renewable energy initiatives. Additionally, establishing local sub-offices would further enhance the efficiency of implementing and monitoring renewable energy projects, ensuring that they align with the specific needs and contexts of each region or locality.
  • Promote and foster research and development endeavors in the field of renewable energy technologies, prioritizing advancements that enhance efficiency, lower costs, and cater to local conditions. Encourage and facilitate collaboration among universities, research institutions, and industry partners to foster innovation. By working together, these entities can drive the development of homegrown renewable energy solutions that are specifically tailored to meet the unique challenges faced in Ghana. This collaborative approach will enable the exploration of cutting-edge technologies, the improvement of existing systems, and the identification of sustainable solutions that align with Ghana's renewable energy goals.
  • To facilitate the smooth integration of renewable energy sources into the existing energy grid, it is crucial to make significant investments in grid infrastructure. This involves upgrading the transmission and distribution networks to handle the increased capacity and variability of renewable energy generation. By implementing advanced smart grid technologies, the grid can efficiently manage and balance the flow of electricity from diverse renewable sources. Moreover, establishing energy storage facilities will play a vital role in enhancing system flexibility and reliability by storing excess renewable energy during periods of high generation and supplying it back to the grid during peak demand. These comprehensive efforts in grid integration and infrastructure development will ensure a robust and resilient energy grid that effectively harnesses the power of renewable sources while meeting the energy needs of the growing population.
  • Encourage strong public-private partnerships to foster collaboration between the public and private sectors. These collaborations would make considerable advances in the renewable energy field by combining their resources, experience, and technological skills. Encouraging private investment in renewable energy projects through public-private partnerships, joint ventures, and competitive bidding processes will act as a catalyst for increasing private sector participation. This collaborative approach promotes innovation, hastens the adoption of renewable energy technology, and lays the path for long-term energy solutions. Ghana may benefit from the knowledge and resources of both sectors through these collaborations, resulting in a more quick and effective transition to a greener and more resilient energy landscape.
By implementing these strategies, Ghana has the potential to optimise energy utilisation, promote widespread adoption of renewable energy, and pave the way for a future that is both sustainable and environmentally friendly. These measures will contribute to efficient energy resources, minimize waste, and maximise output, thus promoting a circular economy. Specifically, by encouraging the adoption of biomass energy, Ghana can tap into its renewable bioresources, such as agricultural residues and organic waste, to generate clean and renewable energy. This transition to a clean and sustainable energy future will not only cut greenhouse gas emissions but also lessen the country's dependency on fossil fuels, creating a more robust and ecologically conscientious energy industry.

Biomass Energy and Ghana's Sustainable Future

In the heart of Ghana, where poverty persists, the energy choices of families play a vital role. A majority of households, unfortunately, labelled as energy-poor, rely on biomass resources like wood, grass, charcoal, and animal dung [73]. However, amidst this challenge, a glimmer of progress shines through as more families gain access to cleaner energy alternatives such as electricity and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). According to the International Energy Agency, in 2018, approximately 25% of Ghanaian households embraced cleaner cooking solutions, marking a positive step forward. Yet, in urban areas, the reliance on biomass remains high, with nearly 60% of households depending on charcoal and wood for their energy needs [26].
Nevertheless, Ghana's journey towards a sustainable future is underway, and biomass energy lies at the heart of this transformation. The government seeks to promote investments in biofuel development, driven by a vision of environmental sustainability, energy security, and independence. Embracing biomass energy not only addresses immediate energy challenges but also combats the encroachment of deserts and mitigates the profound effects of climate change on a global scale [74]. Ghana's potential for biofuel production is substantial, with ample capacity to increase the cultivation of cassava and palm oil for biofuels. Within three years, these feedstocks can be harnessed to introduce liquid biofuels into the national energy mix. With improved cultivation methods, production can be further amplified, paving the way for a greener and more resilient renewable energy [32]. The power of biomass energy reaches beyond mere sustenance; it symbolizes Ghana's determination to overcome energy poverty and foster sustainable development. By embracing these renewable energy sources, the nation takes a significant stride towards achieving its sustainable environmental goals, while empowering communities and uplifting lives. Through collaboration, innovation, and unwavering commitment, Ghana is charting a path towards a brighter, greener future for all.

Biomass Energy, Food Security and the Environment

In the fight against poverty and environmental degradation, the world faces a complex challenge: how to nourish a growing population while preserving our planet's resources [32]. The issue of food security has gained global attention, with efforts made to reduce undernourishment worldwide. However, progress has been insufficient, as millions still suffer from hunger, particularly in least-developed countries [75]. Natural disasters and conflicts further hinder the achievement of global food security goals, leaving agricultural performance vulnerable. Cereals, a vital source of sustenance for humans and livestock alike, play a crucial role in the global food supply chain. Fluctuations in cereal production and prices have far-reaching consequences for food availability and affordability. The use of arable land and edible grains for biofuel production adds another layer of complexity, posing a threat to food security in certain regions [75]. The United States, for example, contributes approximately 70% of global corn production and exports [76]. The increasing number of distilleries producing ethanol raises concerns among food manufacturers and corn-importing countries. As petroleum fuel costs soar, biofuel production using agricultural crops becomes financially appealing, especially in surplus-producing countries. This competition for raw materials drives up prices, placing them above those set by the food industry [76]. The clash between biodiesel producers and margarine manufacturers in Europe exemplifies these inequalities [77].
Over the past 15 years, the rising cost of food has become a pressing issue, drawing concerns from organizations like the World Food Programme. Factors such as adverse climate conditions affecting crops, a growing demand for food in countries like India and China, and the diversion of corn and sugarcane for biofuel production contribute to this upward trend [77]. Despite the challenges, experts from the United Nations highlight the potential of biofuels, such as ethanol, in mitigating global warming and uplifting rural communities through job creation. They argue that a well-managed biofuel sector can contribute to poverty alleviation while addressing environmental concerns [78]. Finding the delicate balance between biomass energy production and food security is essential. It requires comprehensive strategies that prioritize sustainable agricultural practices, promote efficient land use, and foster innovation in both biofuel and food production. By embracing a holistic approach, Ghana can strive for a future where energy and food security coexist harmoniously, lifting communities out of poverty while safeguarding the environment we all depend on.
Relatedly, the utilization of biomass as an energy source in Ghana has significant implications for the environment. Forest degradation, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, atmospheric pollution, and indoor air pollution are among the adverse effects attributed to the exploitation and consumption of biomass [35]. Deforestation, a result of clearing forests and woodlands for agriculture and livestock, leads to soil erosion, increased flood risks, and desertification, causing widespread concerns among environmentalists. Furthermore, the combustion of cattle dung and crop residues during biomass energy production results in the loss of valuable nutrients [79]. In rural kitchens and households, the use of biomass fuels, such as wood fires, is commonplace, leading to persistent smoke and pollution. This poses a considerable inconvenience to women and contributes to health issues. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the smoke emitted by low-quality biofuels like farm residues and animal waste can cause severe bronchitis and pneumonia, particularly in newborns and women [80].
In addition, the use of agricultural residues for energy production can have detrimental effects on the environment. While residues such as rice husks and coconut shells have potential as energy sources, they decompose slowly and can accumulate, causing environmental challenges. Similarly, cattle dung, although traditionally used as fertilizer, loses its value if burnt or left exposed to the sun for extended periods. Additionally, the combustion of fuelwood and other biomass fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, as wood contains approximately 50% carbon. Fuelwood combustion alone contributes to around 2.8% of global CO2 emissions [81]. Furthermore, the combustion of fuelwood and agro-residues produces by-products of incomplete combustion, which are even more potent greenhouse gases per gram of carbon emitted than CO2 [81]. These environmental consequences highlight the need for sustainable approaches to biomass energy utilization. Efforts should focus on minimizing deforestation, promoting efficient stove technologies to reduce indoor air pollution, and exploring alternative sources of energy to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Embracing cleaner and more efficient biomass energy practices will be crucial in preserving Ghana's natural resources, protecting biodiversity, and safeguarding the health and well-being of its population.
Balancing the production of biomass energy with ensuring food security and environmental friendliness is a critical consideration in Ghana's sustainable development. To navigate this challenge, it is crucial to implement strategies that prioritize both objectives. One approach is to promote sustainable biomass practices that prioritize the use of non-food biomass sources. By focusing on agricultural residues and organic waste for energy production [82]. Ghana can minimize direct competition with food production and agro-forestry. Implementing efficient biomass conversion technologies can optimize energy yield from biomass resources, reducing the overall demand for biomass feedstock [82]. Additionally, promoting agroforestry practices and sustainable land management is also vital. Through integrating tree cultivation with crop production, agroforestry systems optimize land use efficiency. These systems provide biomass for energy while supporting food crops. Implementing sustainable land management techniques, such as soil conservation and water management, enhances agricultural productivity, ensuring food security alongside biomass energy production [83].
Also, investing in research and innovation plays a crucial role. By identifying non-food biomass feedstocks and developing efficient conversion technologies, Ghana can extract energy from alternative biomass sources with minimal impact on food security. Research and development efforts should focus on exploring new biomass options that do not compete with staple food crops while maximizing energy production [84]. Furthermore, effective policy and governance frameworks are essential for balancing biomass energy production and food security. Clear regulations should be established, considering the needs of both sectors. Policies should promote sustainable practices, responsible biomass utilization, and ensure the availability and affordability of food. Regular monitoring and evaluation are necessary to identify conflicts and enable timely interventions [85].
In addition, stakeholder engagement and collaboration are key components in managing energy production from biomass and food security. Involving government agencies, research institutions, farmers, and local communities in decision-making processes fosters a holistic approach. By integrating diverse perspectives, the strategies implemented can address the needs and concerns of all stakeholders involved. Through the implementation of these strategies, Ghana can strike a balance between biomass energy production and food security. This approach ensures a sustainable energy sector while safeguarding the availability of nutritious food for its population, contributing to the country's overall sustainable development goals [86,87].

Conclusion

The research concludes that Ghana's substantial dependence on fossil fuels, with more than 80.3% of its energy needs being supplied by non-renewable sources, presents formidable challenges for economic growth. The transport sector alone consumes approximately 57.7% of this energy. To secure its energy future and promote regional development, Ghana must wholeheartedly embrace renewable energy sources due to the depletion of global fossil fuel reserves. However, the widespread adoption of renewable energy encounters barriers such as immoderate upfront costs and a scarcity of expertise. The Ghanaian government has taken commendable steps to support renewable energy development, including the introduction of feed-in-tariffs. Nevertheless, the utilization of biomass energy falls short of the targets set by the Renewable Energy Act 2011 Act (832). Addressing institutional barriers, fostering a competitive market with regulatory support, capacity development and strengthening, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions are imperative. Ghana aspires to become a net exporter of biofuels and transition households from wood and charcoal to cleaner alternatives. The country boasts of significant renewable energy resources, including ocean waves, hydropower, wind, and solar power. However, formidable obstacles such as high technology costs and financing issues must be surmounted. By unwaveringly embracing renewable energy, Ghana can diminish its reliance on fossil fuels, fortify energy security, mitigate environmental impact, and foster sustainable economic growth through sustained investments, supportive policies, and technological advancements. The successful implementation of these measures necessitates concerted efforts from diverse stakeholders and a steadfast commitment to sustainable development.

Funding

The authors declare that they received no funding support.

Funding Acknowledgment

The authors confirm that no funding, grants, or other support were received for this research.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Conceptualization: A-W.T., S.N.K, and S.U.T.; methodology: S.U.T. and A-W.T.; validation: all authors; original draft preparation: A-W.T. and S.N.K.; review and editing: A-W.T., and S.N.K; visualization: A-W.T. All authors have reviewed and approved the manuscript for publication.

Declaration of competing interest

We confirm that this manuscript is not under consideration elsewhere and will not be published in any form, in any language, without the copyright holder's consent. The authors affirm sole responsibility for the manuscript's content.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Clinical trial number

Not applicable.

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Table 1. Summary of inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 1. Summary of inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Database Retrieved Stage 1 Stage 2
Included Excluded Included Excluded
ProQuest 24 9 15 3 6
SpringerNature 57 17 40 11 6
ScienceDirect 266 99 167 37 62
Total 347 125 222 51 74
Table 2. Quality criteria for studies selection.
Table 2. Quality criteria for studies selection.
Criteria Number of studies Percentage (%) Quality
Clearly defined objectives 47 92.1 High
Context of research addressed 50 98 High
Fit for our research purpose 51 100 High
Table 3. Summary of the renewable energy policies in Ghana.
Table 3. Summary of the renewable energy policies in Ghana.
Policy document Provisions Challenges
Ghana National Energy
Policy, 2010
  • The policy emphasizes the promotion and utilization of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and biomass. It recognizes the importance of diversifying Ghana's energy mix and reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
  • It aims to increase the share of renewable energy in the national energy supply to at least 10% by 2020 and 20% by 2030.
  • It outlines financial incentives, tax breaks, and favorable regulatory frameworks to attract private sector participation
  • Facilitate access to the grid for waste-to-energy power plants
  • Lack of clear implementation strategies
  • The policy does not give enough emphasis to renewable energy sources
Renewable Energy Master
Plan, 2019–2030
  • It aims to achieve a renewable energy penetration rate of 10% by 2020, 20% by 2030, and 50% by 2050.
  • Conducting comprehensive resource assessments and mapping exercises for various renewable energy sources.
  • Grid Integration and Off-Grid Solutions.
  • The establishment of dedicated funds, financial incentives, and partnerships with the private sector to attract investments in the renewable energy sector
  • Lack of clear financing mechanisms
  • Lack of clear monitoring and evaluation mechanisms
Ghana National Climate
Change Policy, 2013
  • Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting low-carbon technologies.
  • It aims to achieve a 10% renewable energy penetration rate by 2020 and 20% by 2030.
  • Highlights the importance of technology transfer and capacity building in the renewable energy sector.
  • Limited sectoral integration
Ghana Shared Growth and
Development Agenda
(GSGDA II) 2013–2017
  • Increase the proportion of renewable energy, in the national energy supply mix
  • Promote the use and design of energy-efficient and renewable energy technologies in public and private buildings
  • Create an appropriate fiscal and regulatory framework to encourage renewable energy from mini-hydropower projects
  • The policy lacks specific and detailed implementation mechanisms for achieving the renewable energy targets
  • While the policy recognizes the importance of financing for renewable energy projects, it does not provide specific details on financial mechanisms and support for project development
The Renewable Energy Act (2011) Act (832)
  • The act establishes a feed-in tariff system, which guarantees fixed payments for electricity generated from renewable energy sources.
  • mandates electricity distribution companies to purchase a certain percentage of their electricity from renewable energy sources.
  • The act establishes a Renewable Energy Fund to provide financial support for the development and promotion of renewable energy projects.
  • The fund is financed through levies on electricity consumers and other sources, and it aims to facilitate access to affordable financing for renewable energy initiatives.
  • Limited Enforcement Mechanisms
  • Limited Regulatory Framework for Off-Grid Systems
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