Submitted:
02 April 2026
Posted:
02 April 2026
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Abstract
Background: Early marriage among girls under 19 years remains a significant public health and social concern in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, India. Despite legal restrictions, the practice continues due to socio-cultural norms, economic constraints, and gender inequality. Objectives: To assess the sociodemographic characteristics of girls married before the age of 19 years and to explore their opinions regarding early marriage. Methods: A mixed-methods study employing a convergent parallel design was conducted among 20 girls married before the age of 19 years. Quantitative sociodemographic data were analyzed descriptively, while qualitative insights were generated through two Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings were integrated using a joint analysis approach to examine convergence, divergence, and complementarity across data strands. Results: Quantitative findings: Most participants were aged 16–18 years (80%), with 90% living with their husbands. A majority were housewives (60%), while others were engaged in daily work or farming. Half had secondary education (50%), while 15% had no formal education. Most participants had no children (65%). Qualitative findings: Early marriage was socially accepted and influenced by family pressure and limited autonomy. Although participants preferred marriage after valued education, early marriage often resulted in school discontinuation. Girls reported a lack of readiness for marital responsibilities and economic dependency. However, many expressed a desire to delay marriage and continue education. Conclusion: Early marriage persists due to entrenched socio-cultural and economic factors despite awareness of its adverse effects. Strengthening education, empowerment, and community awareness is essential to delay the age of marriage.
Keywords:
early marriage
; under-19 girls
; sundarbans
; mixed methods
; India
INTRODUCTION:
Early marriage, defined as marriage before the age of 18 years, remains a major global public health and human rights issue. It disproportionately affects adolescent girls and is associated with adverse outcomes such as early pregnancy, maternal health risks, school dropout, and reduced autonomy[1]. Despite global commitments, child marriage continues to be highly prevalent in low and middle income countries, particularly in South Asia [2].
In India, early marriage remains a persistent concern despite legal measures such as the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006. Socio-cultural norms, poverty, gender inequality, limited access to education, and concerns related to family honour and safety contribute significantly to the continuation of this practice [3]. National evidence from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) indicates that a considerable proportion of women aged 20–24 years were married before the age of 18 years, highlighting the ongoing burden of early marriage in India [4].
The Sundarbans region of West Bengal represents a particularly vulnerable setting due to its geographical isolation, economic instability, and limited access to health and educational services. In such hard to reach areas, early marriage is often normalized and reinforced by traditional beliefs and community expectations. These structural vulnerabilities are further intensified by climate related disruptions, which have significantly affected livelihoods in the region. Climate induced disasters have contributed to high levels of economic insecurity, including irregular income among affected households, thereby increasing the risk of child labour, trafficking and early marriage as coping mechanisms[5,6]
However, there is limited qualitative evidence exploring the lived opinions of girls married before 19 years in this context. Understanding the sociodemographic characteristics and opinions of girls married before the age of 19 years is essential for designing context-specific interventions. Therefore, this study aims to assess the sociodemographic profile of under-19 married girls and to explore their opinions regarding early marriage in a selected community development block of the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS :
Study Design and Approach
This study was conducted as an observational cross-sectional study using a mixed-methods approach with a convergent parallel design. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously, analysed independently, and integrated through joint analysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of early marriage among girls under 19 years.
Study Area and Period
The study was carried out in a selected Community Development Block of the Sundarbans region, West Bengal, India, comprising 15 Gram Panchayats. The area is characterized by socio-economic vulnerability and a higher prevalence of early marriage practices.
The study was conducted over a period of three months, from January 2026 to March 2026.
Study Population
The study population consisted of girls who were married before the age of 19 years and were residing across all 15 Gram Panchayats of the selected block during the study period.
Eligibility Criteria:
Inclusion Criteria: Girls married before 19 years of age. Residents of the selected Gram Panchayats.Willing to participate
Exclusion Criteria: Participants unavailable during the data collection period.Those who did not provide informed consent
Sample Size and Sampling Technique: A total of 20 participants were included in the study.A simple random sampling technique was employed. Eligible participants were identified from all 15 Gram Panchayats, and participants were randomly selected to ensure representation from the entire study area.
Data Collection Methods:
Quantitative Component:
Quantitative data were collected through face to face interviews using a predesigned and pretested structured schedule. Information on socio demographic variables such as age, education, occupation, marital status, religion and number of children was obtained.
Qualitative Component:
Qualitative data were collected using Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). A total of two FGDs were conducted among girls married before 19 years. Each FGD was guided by a semi structured discussion guide to explore participant’s opinions regarding early marriage.
Study Variables: Quantitative Variables: Age, education, occupation, marital status, religion and number of children.Qualitative Variable: Opinions regarding early marriage
Operational Definition of Opinion: “Opinion” refers to the views, perceptions, attitudes, and experiences expressed by participants regarding early marriage.
Data Analysis:
Quantitative Analysis:
Quantitative data were analysed using Microsoft Excel 2025 and JAMOVI (version 2.6.17). Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage were calculated and presented using tables and graphical formats.
Qualitative Analysis:
Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis with the help of Taguette (open-source qualitative data analysis software). Transcripts were coded and organized into themes. Colour coding technique was used:
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Data (Joint Analysis):
Quantitative and qualitative findings were integrated through a joint analysis approach to identify convergence, divergence, and complementarity between findings. This helped in strengthening interpretation and providing a deeper understanding of the issue.
Ethical Considerations:
Ethical standards were adhered to throughout the study. Administrative and ethical support for conducting the research was obtained from the “Old Women, Child and Underdevelopment Progress Society” (Memo No.: OWCUPS/2L/2025/RE/0912 dated 15 December 2025).
As all participants were under 19 years of age, written informed consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians, along with assent from the participants themselves, before data collection.
Prior permission was also obtained from the relevant local governing bodies and community leaders before initiating field activities.
All procedures were conducted in accordance with accepted ethical principles for human subject research. Participant confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained, and no personally identifiable information was disclosed at any stage of the study.
Results: Quantitative
Table 1 presents the frequency distribution of sociodemographic characteristics of under-19 girls (n = 20). With respect to age, the majority of under-19 girls were in the 16–18 years age group, comprising 16 individuals (80%), while 4 (20%) were in the 13–15 years age group.
Regarding marital status, most under-19 girls were living with their husbands, accounting for 18 (90%), whereas 2 (10%) were divorced.
In terms of occupation, more than half of the under-19 girls were housewives (n = 12, 60%). The remaining were engaged in other occupations, including daily wage work (n = 4, 20%), farming (n = 3, 15%), and merchant activities (n = 1, 5%).
The educational status showed that half of the under-19 girls had completed secondary education (classes 5–10), representing 10 (50%). Additionally, 5 (25%) had attained high school education (classes 11–12). A smaller proportion had no formal education (n = 3, 15%) or had completed primary education (classes 1–4) (n = 2, 10%).
With respect to religion, the majority of under-19 girls were Muslim (n = 12, 60%), followed by Hindu (n = 7, 35%) and Christian (n = 1, 5%).
Regarding the number of children, most under-19 girls had no children (n = 13, 65%), while 6 (30%) had one child and only 1 (5%) had two to three children.
Overall, the findings indicate that the study population of under-19 girls was predominantly in the 16–18 years age group, living with their husbands, mainly housewives, with secondary level education, largely belonging to the Muslim community, and mostly without children.
Results: Qualitative
The findings from the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) conducted among under-19 girls (n = 20, two groups of 10 participants each) revealed several consistent themes regarding opinions on early marriage.
Early marriage was widely perceived as a socially and culturally accepted practice within the community. Participants from both groups indicated that early marriage is common and expected, with strong societal pressure to conform. Statements such as “everyone follows this practice” and “people expect girls to marry early” reflect the normalization of early marriage and the influence of community expectations.
Family pressure and lack of autonomy emerged as a significant factor influencing early marriage. Participants reported that decisions regarding marriage are primarily made by parents and relatives, often without considering the girls’ preferences. Many expressed that they had little or no choice in the matter, highlighting limited decision-making power and the dominance of family authority in marital decisions.
Table 2.
FGD Findings – Group 1 (n = 10),Opinions on Early Marriage (Under-19 Girls).
| Theme | Participant Quotes | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|
| 1: Social norms and cultural acceptance | “Early marriage is common in our village.” “Everyone follows this practice.” “People will talk if a girl is not married early.” | Early marriage is culturally accepted and normalized within the community. |
| 2: Family pressure and lack of autonomy | “It is not good but we have to follow family decisions.” “My parents decided everything.” “I had no choice.” “Girls cannot go against their family.” | Girls have limited decision-making power and are expected to comply with family decisions. |
| 3:Preferred age and education linkage | “Girls should marry after 18.” “Better after completing studies.” “First education, then marriage.” “If we study more, we can marry later.” | Participants prefer marriage after the legal age and associate it with completion of education. |
| 4:Educational disruption | “After marriage, I had to stop school.” “It is difficult to study after marriage.” “My studies ended after marriage.” “I wanted to continue school but couldn’t.” | Early marriage interrupts education and limits future opportunities. |
| 5:Marital unpreparedness | “Too many responsibilities at a young age.” “We are not mentally ready.” “Marriage brings pressure.” “I feel stressed handling household work.” | Early marriage leads to psychological stress and lack of readiness for marital roles. |
| 6:Economic dependency | “After marriage, I became a housewife.” “I could not work outside.” “I depend on my husband for everything.” “I wanted to earn but I had no opportunity.” | Early marriage restricts employment opportunities, leading to financial dependence. |
| 7:Love marriage and elopement | “Some girls run away to marry their partner.” “Parents don’t agree, so they elope.” “They fear forced marriage at home.” “Love marriage is not accepted in families.” | Some early marriages occur due to romantic relationships and lack of parental acceptance. |
| 8:Early motherhood challenges | “Having a child early is very difficult.” “It is hard to take care of a baby at this age.” “We are not ready to become mothers.” | Early pregnancy is perceived as physically and emotionally burdensome. |
| 9:Aspiration for delayed marriage | “Girls should study first.” “Marriage should be delayed.” “We want to become something before marriage.” “Early marriage should be stopped.” | There is strong support among girls for delaying marriage and prioritizing education. |
Despite the prevalence of early marriage, participants expressed a clear preference for delayed marriage. Under-19 girls in both groups emphasized the importance of completing education before marriage, suggesting that marriage should occur after 18 years or even after 20 years. This indicates an awareness of legal age norms and a desire to prioritize education prior to entering marital life.
Educational disruption was a prominent consequence of early marriage. Participants reported that marriage often leads to discontinuation of schooling, with many unable to continue their studies after marriage. Both groups consistently highlighted that early marriage restricts educational attainment and limits future opportunities.
Table 3.
FGD Findings – Group 1 (n = 10),Opinions on Early Marriage (Under-19 Girls).
| Theme | Participant Quotes | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|
| 1: Social norms and cultural acceptance | “It is a tradition in our community.” “Everyone follows this custom.” “People expect girls to marry early.” | Early marriage is culturally accepted and sustained by community expectations. |
| 2: Family pressure and lack of autonomy | “Sometimes it is forced.” “Parents and relatives decide.” “Girls are not asked about their choice.” | Girls have limited autonomy, with family and relatives playing a dominant role in decision-making. |
| 3:Preferred age and education linkage | “After 20 is better.” “First education, then marriage.” “Girls should complete studies before marriage.” | Participants prefer delayed marriage and emphasize education as a priority. |
| 4:Educational disruption | “Girls cannot continue studies after marriage.” “Education stops once a girl is married.” “Many girls drop out after marriage.” | Early marriage interrupts education and limits future opportunities. |
| 5:Marital unpreparedness | “Life becomes difficult after marriage.” “There is a lot of responsibility.” “Girls are not ready for such roles.” | Early marriage leads to increased responsibilities and lack of mental preparedness. |
| 6:Economic dependency | “We stay at home and do household work.” “Girls cannot work after marriage.” “They depend on family income.” | Early marriage restricts employment opportunities and leads to financial dependence. |
| 7:Love marriage and elopement | “Some girls marry by their own choice.” “They leave home if parents do not agree.” “Love marriage is not accepted easily.” | Some early marriages occur due to romantic relationships and lack of parental acceptance. |
| 8:Early motherhood challenges | “Early childbearing is risky.” “Young girls face health problems.” “It is difficult to manage a child at this age.” | Early pregnancy is associated with health risks and physical burden. |
| 9:Aspiration for delayed marriage | “Awareness should be increased.” “Girls should be empowered.” “Marriage should happen later.” | Participants support delaying marriage and promoting education and empowerment. |
Marital unpreparedness was another key theme identified. Under-19 girls described experiencing significant psychological stress and difficulty managing responsibilities after marriage. They expressed that they were not mentally prepared for marital roles, with increased household responsibilities contributing to feelings of pressure and stress.
Economic dependency was also commonly reported. Participants indicated that early marriage restricts their ability to engage in income-generating activities, resulting in financial dependence on husbands or family members. Many expressed a desire to work and earn but reported lack of opportunities following marriage.
The theme of love marriage and elopement was observed in both groups. Some participants reported that early marriages occur due to romantic relationships, especially when such relationships are not accepted by families. In such cases, girls may elope to marry their partners, indicating a conflict between personal choice and societal norms.
Early motherhood challenges were highlighted as a major concern. Participants described early childbearing as physically and emotionally difficult, with increased health risks and challenges in managing childcare at a young age. Many expressed that they were not ready to take on maternal responsibilities.
Finally, there was a strong aspiration for delayed marriage among participants. Under-19 girls emphasized the importance of education, empowerment, and awareness in preventing early marriage. They expressed a desire to achieve personal goals before marriage and supported the idea that marriage should occur at a later stage in life.
| Quantitative Results (QUAN): Figures |
 |
| Qualitative Findings (QUAL): Themes |
| Theme 1:Social norms and cultural acceptance. Theme 2:Family pressure and lack of autonomy. Theme 3:Preferred age and education linkage. Theme 5:Marital unpreparedness. Theme 7:Love marriage and elopement. Theme 8: Early motherhood challenges. |
| Integrated Interpretation :(QUAN+QUAL) |
| The quantitative findings on age, religion, and marital status show that early marriage among under-19 girls is a common and socially accepted practice in the community. This reflects Theme 1 and Theme 2, where marriage decisions are mainly influenced by social norms and family pressure rather than the girl’s own choice. The age pattern also connects with Theme 3, showing that marriage often happens at a stage when education is affected or stopped. Even though this practice is common, qualitative findings highlight Theme 5 and Theme 8, indicating that many girls are not fully ready for married life and face difficulties related to early motherhood. Theme 7 shows that in some cases, girls choose love marriage or elopement, but this is limited compared to family-driven decisions. |
Overall, the qualitative findings demonstrate that while early marriage remains culturally embedded and influenced by family pressure, under-19 girls increasingly recognize its negative consequences and express a clear preference for delaying marriage and prioritizing education and personal development.
Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings: (QUAN+QUAL)
Table 4. Presence of under-19 girls during data collection(Joint Display:1).
Table 5.
Presence of under-19 girls during data collection(Joint Display:2).
| Quantitative Results (QUAN): |
|---|
 |
| Qualitative Findings (QUAL): Themes |
| Theme 2:Family pressure and lack of autonomy. Theme 3:Preferred age and education linkage. Theme 4:Educational disruption. Theme 6:Economic dependency. Theme 8: Early motherhood challenges. Theme 9:Aspiration for delayed marriage |
| Integrated Interpretation :(QUAN+QUAL) |
| The quantitative findings on occupation, education, and number of children show that most under-19 girls are engaged as housewives, have limited educational attainment, and many have already entered motherhood. This reflects Theme 2, in which family influence shapes life choices, and Themes 3 and 4, which indicate that marriage often leads to the interruption or discontinuation of education. The dominance of housewifery and low participation in income-generating activities align with Theme 6, highlighting economic dependency. The presence of children among these girls further supports Theme 8, showing early entry into motherhood with associated challenges. At the same time, Theme 9 suggests that despite these conditions, some girls express a desire to delay marriage, indicating awareness and emerging aspirations beyond existing social constraints. |
DISCUSSION:
Early marriage, defined as marriage before the age of 18 years, continues to be a major public health and social concern, particularly in developing countries like India. Recent literature highlights that early marriage is influenced by multiple socio-economic, cultural, and gender-related factors.
A study conducted in India identified that low educational status, poverty, caste, and family background are significant determinants of early marriage [7]. Girls from economically weaker sections and with limited access to education are more likely to be married at an early age. These findings are supported by global evidence, which emphasizes that poverty, social norms, and gender inequality are the primary drivers of child marriage [8]. In many communities, early marriage is culturally accepted and often seen as a social obligation.
In rural settings, family pressure and lack of awareness further contribute to the continuation of early marriage practices. Studies have reported that parental influence, traditional beliefs, and limited knowledge play a crucial role in early marriage decisions [9]. This is particularly relevant in communities where girls have minimal autonomy.
The consequences of early marriage are severe and multidimensional. Evidence shows that early marriage leads to poor reproductive health outcomes, including early pregnancy and maternal complications [10].
The issue of limited decision-making power among adolescent girls has been widely discussed in recent literature. It has been found that most girls are excluded from the decision making process and are often compelled to accept marriage decisions made by their families [11]. This reflects deep-rooted gender inequality.
Additionally, it contributes to school dropout, reduced employment opportunities, and long-term socio-economic disadvantages. It also negatively affects the mental health and well-being of adolescent girls [12].
Overall, the literature indicates that early marriage is driven by a combination of economic hardship, cultural norms, and gender inequality, and results in significant health, educational, and social consequences. These findings support the need for qualitative exploration through FGDs.
LIMITATION :
This study has several limitations that should be considered while interpreting the findings. Being a cross-sectional study, it captures information at a single point in time and does not establish causal relationships. The study was conducted in selected Gram Panchayats within a specific block, which limits the generalizability of the results to wider populations. The use of self-reported data may have introduced recall and social desirability bias, particularly on sensitive issues such as early marriage, autonomy, and family pressure. Additionally, the relatively small and localized sample size, along with the short study period, may have restricted the depth of exploration. As the qualitative findings rely on researcher interpretation, there is also a possibility of subjective bias.
CONCLUSION :
Early marriage among adolescent girls is a multifaceted issue driven by entrenched socio-cultural norms, gender inequality, and limited autonomy of girls within family structures. The practice persists not merely as a tradition but as a socially reinforced expectation, often overriding individual choice and rights.
The findings indicate that early marriage significantly compromises girl’s overall development by restricting educational attainment, limiting economic independence, and exposing them to early marital and reproductive responsibilities for which they are often unprepared. These conditions reinforce cycles of dependency, vulnerability, and intergenerational disadvantage.
At the same time, the expressed aspirations of girls to pursue education and delay marriage reflect a critical window of opportunity for intervention. This suggests that, despite structural constraints, there is growing awareness and willingness among adolescents to challenge existing norms.
Therefore, addressing early marriage requires integrated, context-specific strategies that go beyond individual-level change to target family, community, and systemic factors. Strengthening girl’s education, enhancing decision-making autonomy, and transforming societal attitudes are essential to achieving sustainable change and improving the long term well being of under-19 girls.
References
- World Health Organization (WHO). Policy and education: ways to end child marriage and prevent adolescent pregnancy: progress and insights from Colombia . Geneva: WHO; 2025. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/policy-and-education--ways-to-end-child-marriage-and-prevent-adolescent-pregnancy(Accessed 25 January 2026).
- United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)-United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Leaving no one behind: Technical note of the global programme to end child marriage. New York: UNFPA and UNICEF; 2020. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/media/85301/file/Child-marriage-leaving-no-one-behind-2020.pdf(Accessed 30 January 2026).
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Table 1.
Frequency Distribution of Sociodemographic Characteristics of Under-19 Girls (n=20).
| Characteristics | Frequency (n) | Percent (%) |
| Age | ||
| 13-15 | 4 | 20 |
| 16-18 | 16 | 80 |
| Marital status | ||
| Living with Husband | 18 | 90 |
| Divorced | 2 | 10 |
| Occupation | ||
| Housewife | 12 | 60 |
| Farmer | 3 | 15 |
| Merchant | 1 | 5 |
| Daily worker | 4 | 20 |
| Education level | ||
| No formal education | 3 | 15 |
| Primary School(1–4) | 2 | 10 |
| Secondary School(5-10) | 10 | 50 |
| High School (11–12) | 5 | 25 |
| Religion | ||
| Hindu | 7 | 35 |
| Muslim | 12 | 60 |
| Christian | 1 | 5 |
| Number of children | ||
| 0 | 13 | 65 |
| 1 | 6 | 30 |
| 2–3 | 1 | 5 |
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