Between Warfare and Craftsmanship: In-Situ XRF Analysis of Illyrian Helmets from Across Albania

Illyrian helmets represent a key element of Iron Age martial culture in the western Bal-kans, reflecting technological knowledge, workshop traditions, and long-distance cultural exchange. Based on the currently available archaeological record, Illyrian helmets are first attested in contexts dating to the 8th-7th centuries BC, with finds concentrated in Greece and the central and western Balkans, including Macedonia, Albania, Dalmatia, and the wider interior. Over time, the form developed into several variants (Types I-IIIB). This study presents the elemental characterization of the total set of 27 Illyrian helmets exca-vated in Albania and currently preserved in local museum collections, a region where the later types are particularly well attested. As the helmets are intact and exhibited in mu-seums, non-destructive micro-XRF analysis was employed. The main research questions addressed how the alloy composition, including minor and trace elements, reflects local metallurgical practices and distinguishes Illyrian helmets from similar helmets in neigh-boring regions. The results indicate the consistent use of bronze alloys dominated by cop-per (89-95.3%) with low tin contents (3.5-9.9%), consistent with established alloying prac-tices for durable protective equipment. Minor and trace elements, including iron (up to 1.5%), lead (up to 0.76%), arsenic (up to 0.09%), zinc (up to 1.17%), and antimony (up to 2.36%), likely reflect metallurgical choices, recycling practices, or impurities linked to re-gional copper deposits. These elemental signatures, particularly the association of arsenic, antimony, zinc, and iron, suggest regional metallurgical characteristics and offer addi-tional insight into Illyrian bronze production, while helping to distinguish these helmets from contemporaneous finds in other parts of the Balkans and Europe.