Breaking Attachments and Liberation: Resolving Alienation in the Consumer Era through Dialogue between Alienation Theory and Zen Thought

Consumption alienation and mental alienation are not isolated existences; they are intertwined like vines, mutually causal and reinforcing each other, presenting an ascending double-helix structure.

On one hand, external capitalist logic, for self-valorization, uses the sign meaning of commodities to discipline humans, trapping them in a process of constantly intensifying "attachment to self" and "attachment to dharmas." Consumption originally satisfied people's real and necessary needs for survival and development; its purpose was primarily to obtain the use-value of products, and production and promotion focused on their physical attributes. But when capital, to valorize, decided to sell surplus commodities by any means necessary, it determined that attention could not be solely on use-value and physical attributes but must shift more intensively to the spiritual meaning commodities could carry. This shift stems from the sales pressure of surplus goods: when basic needs are saturated, capital must create "non-essential consumption" by imbuing commodities with "emotional value" or "identity meaning" (e.g., "diamonds = eternal love"). Sign-value thus becomes the core tool for digesting surplus capacity and maintaining the capital cycle. Precisely because of this, the sign-value or symbolic meaning of commodities becomes the object that must be focused on in the capitalist production process, even replacing the use-value or physical attributes themselves as the primary factor consumers consider when constructing their identity. Even if humans recognize capital's discipline, the individual's "attachment to self" and "attachment to dharmas," amplified through repeated consumption stimuli, become entrenched. For example, Hermès, by strictly controlling the production quantity and sales channels of the Birkin bag, constructs a sign barrier through the "quota system" (requiring purchase of a specified amount of other goods to gain eligibility), encoding "owning a Birkin" as "access to the top tier of society." Consumers seeking this sign not only pay premiums of hundreds of thousands but also undergo the brand's rule domestication – like the "ritual" of waiting years on a list, compliantly completing "quota tasks" for sales associates. This is essentially a collusion between "attachment to self" (ren wo zhi) (proving "I belong to the elite" through the sign) and capitalist discipline. Furthermore, the premium circulation of Birkin bags on the secondary market (e.g., a limited edition Birkin sold for 3 million RMB in 2023) reinforces the "attachment to dharmas" (fa wo zhi) belief that "scarce signs have eternal value," trapping consumers in a "purchase → appreciation → repurchase" cycle. Capitalist logic and ego-attachment here form a mutually nourishing closed loop. Another example is the Nike x Off-White Air Jordan 1 sneakers. Through the sign encoding of "globally limited to 5000 pairs," binding "scarcity" with "trendy identity," it stimulates consumers to overspend: a sneaker enthusiast, to buy the latest colorway, resorts to monthly credit card installments. His mental activity is precisely driven by the dual forces of "attachment to self" (proving "I am a core player" through the sneakers) and "attachment to dharmas" (believing "limited editions will appreciate"). The social recognition gained after each consumption further reinforces the obsession that "self must be confirmed through signs." Or consider a trendy rooftop café in Beijing, packaging coffee with a "camping theme," alienating consumption into "proof of lifestyle." Consumers pay a premium of 58 yuan per cup to photograph the "same shot as friends' circle," with 72% of "post-95s" admitting "check-in behavior is driven by social media likes," forming a closed loop of "sign consumption → virtual recognition → deeper consumption." This is essentially the "co-dependence" (gong yi cun) relationship mentioned by Itō Akio in Love Addiction (2009): Under consumer society, the relationship between capitalist logic and the individual is a fixed interpersonal pattern like "one party as parent, one party as child." After individuals become accustomed to being disciplined by capitalist logic according to its "parental will," even if they deeply recognize the consumption alienation and deprivation of subjectivity brought by this discipline, because they are already familiar with and adapted to this alienation and unclear about situations beyond it, they fear rashly attempting to overthrow this alienation. The resulting false solution is that individuals psychologically actively accommodate capitalist logic, spontaneously transforming commodity/sign consumption into "comfort" for the deprivation of their own subjectivity and self-deception reinforcing "ego-attachment."

On the other hand, individuals' deeply rooted "ego-attachment" (clinging to an illusory self, delusion of external things providing constant satisfaction) makes them more susceptible to accepting, internalizing, and even actively embracing consumerist ideology. This mental alienation can even feed back into consumption alienation. For instance, "minimalism," originally advocating a "dematerialized" lifestyle, was deconstructed by capital into a new sign: NetEase Yanxuan launched "high-end minimalist storage boxes," marketed as "same factory, same quality, affordable alternative to Muji," priced three times higher than ordinary storage boxes. Yet consumers, to craft a "minimalist persona," are still willing to pay. Under the "minimalist life" topic on Xiaohongshu, sales of high-priced "decluttering tools" grew by 230% annually, forming the paradox of "appearance of breaking attachments → deeper consumption," confirming Baudrillard's (1970) assertion in The Consumer Society that "anti-consumption is itself consumption." Reflection on and severance of the root of suffering is accomplished through continuous theoretical study and practice. As Aristotle stated in Nicomachean Ethics (c. 350 BC), "Young men can become proficient in geometry and mathematics, and wise in these matters, but we do not see them possess practical wisdom... Practical wisdom is concerned with particular things, and this requires experience, which young men lack." The journey from contemplating "ego-attachment" to practicing "non-self" is also a long process. The Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, Chapter 2, states:

"By firmly holding to a mind of detachment, even the mind that is like an illusion is also to be detached from. Detachment that is like an illusion is also to be detached from. Detaching from detachment and illusion, that too is to be detached from. Attaining that which has nothing to be detached from, then all illusions are eliminated. It is like drilling for fire: two pieces of wood rub together; fire comes out and the wood is consumed; ashes fly and smoke vanishes. Cultivating illusion with illusion is also like this. Though all illusions are extinguished, one does not enter extinction."

Therefore, "non-self of all conditioned phenomena" (zhu xing wu wo) emphasizes "all conditioned phenomena" (zhu xing), not being "non-self" in a single act or thought. This is a long-term process, resonating with Zhu Xi's (1189) idea in Collected Commentaries on the Four Books: "Today investigate one thing, tomorrow investigate another; when accumulated practice is abundant, then suddenly there will be thorough penetration." This is what Master Huineng meant by "The samadhi of one practice means constantly practicing straightforward mind in all places, whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down." Due to the general lack of long-term cultivation, modern people find it difficult to eradicate "ego-attachment." Individuals in "ignorance" mistake the desires shaped by capitalist logic for their own true needs. This becomes the most silent and widespread cornerstone for consolidating capitalist domination. Capitalist logic and individual mentality form a collusion here, jointly constructing the dual shackles that suppress subjectivity.

Analytical Marxist Jon Elster (1985), in Making Sense of Marx, argued that a complete theory of alienation consists of three parts: first, a conception of human nature; second, a revelation of its alienation; and finally, a description of its return. Regarding the conception of human nature, Marx rejected the "reason" commonly acknowledged by Enlightenment philosophers as the human essence, believing "the human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations." Therefore, Marxist alienation theory reveals the phenomenon of humans deviating from their material production relations, spiritual relations, and historical relations. In The German Ideology, the initial cause of alienation is attributed to the division of labor under capitalist historical conditions: "In fact, division of labour and private property are identical expressions: in the one the same thing is affirmed with reference to activity as is affirmed in the other with reference to the product of the activity. ... As long as activity is not voluntarily, but naturally, divided, man’s own deed becomes an alien power opposed to him, which enslaves him instead of being controlled by him." This means alienation occurs under capitalist conditions; eliminating alienation signifies that humans can master their social relations, achieve comprehensive liberation and freedom. This requires the proletariat, under the premise of enormous growth and high development of productive forces, to achieve through revolution. This is what Lukács (1923) in History and Class Consciousness called the class consciousness where the proletariat, as the bearer of history, simultaneously acts as the subject of history, realizing the freedom of "subject as substance."

Like Marxist alienation theory, Zen thought also aims at "freedom," but their respective "freedoms" are fundamentally different. Marxist "freedom" is comprehensive liberation constrained by historical conditions; its realization depends on the fundamental transformation of capitalist production relations: Only when productive forces develop to the point where "the majority are rendered propertyless" and "world intercourse is universally developed" (The German Ideology), and through proletarian revolution eliminating private property and forced division of labor, can humans break free from the external reification of capitalist logic and achieve the all-round development of "free association of producers" where "each contributes according to his ability, each receives according to his need." This freedom has a distinct historical stage; it is the overcoming of alienation by "real individuals" within concrete social relations. As Marx stated in the Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875), "Right can never be higher than the economic structure of society and its cultural development conditioned thereby."

Zen's "freedom" is the inner transcendence of "in thought after thought not dwelling on any dharma, then there is no bondage" (Platform Sutra, Chapter on Actions). It does not rely on specific historical conditions but is achieved through the individual's awakening to "dependent origination and emptiness" (yuan qi xing kong), breaking the bondage of "ego-attachment" (wo zhi) to the mind-nature in the present moment. The teaching "Dwelling nowhere, let the mind arise" (ying wu suo zhu er sheng qi xin) from the Diamond Sutra, Chapter 32, reveals the core of this freedom: not clinging to the constancy of external things (commodity signs), not trapped by the substantiality of the self (identity), thereby maintaining the autonomy and clarity of mind-nature in any circumstance. This freedom possesses trans-historical universality – "all people have Buddha-nature" (Platform Sutra, Prajñā Chapter) means individuals in any era can attain it through awakening. However, its scope is limited to the individual spiritual realm; it cannot directly change external social structures.

Their dialectical relationship manifests as: Social liberation clears external obstacles for mental freedom; mental freedom provides internal impetus for social liberation. On one hand, when the external oppression of capitalist logic is eliminated (e.g., the weakening of sign worship in socialist society), the resistance for individuals to break "ego-attachment" significantly decreases – without advertising's bombardment of sign-value, "attachment to dharmas" (fa wo zhi) loses its main breeding ground; without the stimulation of class solidification on identity anxiety, "attachment to self" (ren wo zhi) lacks reinforcing power. On the other hand, the group effect formed by individual mental awakening can provide spiritual momentum for social transformation: When more people contemplate consumption alienation through the lens of "dependent origination and emptiness," they spontaneously resist sign manipulation and participate in practices opposing capitalist hegemony. As Fromm stated in Man for Himself (1947), "The spiritual awakening of the individual is often the precursor to social change."

Their emancipatory intent is isomorphic. Jürgen Habermas's theory of "emancipatory interest" (emanzipatorisches Erkenntnisinteresse) in Knowledge and Human Interests (1968) can serve as corroboration. He proposed that human cognitive activity is underpinned by three interests: technical interest (controlling nature), practical interest (understanding social interaction), and emancipatory interest (achieving freedom by overcoming oppression through critical reflection). This theory provides an important intermediary for the dialogue between Marxism and Zen – although their paths differ drastically, both ultimately point towards the "emancipatory interest."

Marxism's emancipatory interest manifests as the critique of capitalist production relations, seeking to break capital's external oppression of humans through transforming social structure. Its "liberation" is "real individuals" freeing themselves from the slavery of things in historical practice, achieving all-round development within the "free association of producers." This directly echoes Habermas's "liberation through critique of social institutions." Zen's emancipatory interest manifests as the breaking of "ego-attachment," freeing oneself from internal bondage through awakening to "dependent origination and emptiness." Its "freedom" is the inner transcendence of "mind being able to transform things" (xin neng zhuan wu), as in the practice of "illuminating the mind and seeing the nature" (ming xin jian xing) in the Platform Sutra, Chapter on Actions. This is essentially dissolving self-oppression through mental critique, aligning with the core of "reflective self-liberation" in "emancipatory interest."

This isomorphism is reflected in: Both oppose "alienated domination" (external capital or internal ego-attachment), both aim for "human freedom and consciousness." Marxism focuses on "liberation of social relations," Zen focuses on "liberation at the mind-nature level." Together, they constitute the dual dimensions of humanity's pursuit of liberation.

Their applicable boundaries are clear: Marxism's critique of "external oppression by capitalist logic" is irreplaceable; it reveals the institutional roots of alienation and provides a scientific guide to action for social transformation. Zen's breaking of "internal bondage by ego-attachment" is equally indispensable within its domain; it cannot replace historical materialism's analysis of social structure, nor can it shake the fundamental principle that "social being determines social consciousness." It can only serve as a method for individuals to attain spiritual freedom under given historical conditions.

Since consumption alienation and mental alienation exist in comparison, Marxism's alienation critique, which takes human liberation as its ideal, and Zen's prajñā wisdom, which takes individual liberation as its goal, should be applied simultaneously in the practice of overcoming alienation. In fact, they provide profoundly complementary critical perspectives and paths to liberation.

Marx firmly anchored the phenomenon of alienation within the historical-social structure of capitalism. As discussed, he profoundly analyzed the capitalist economic structure and incisively pointed out that the roots of alienation are deeply embedded in the soil of capitalist private property and its wage-labor relations. Consumption alienation is a new form of alienation under consumer society, but ultimately it is a result of the self-valorization of capitalist logic. As Baudrillard stated in For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign (1972): "As soon as we consume, we are not engaging in an isolated act (this 'isolation' is merely the consumer's illusion, carefully maintained by all the ideological discourse about consumption); we enter into a comprehensive system of coded value production and exchange." Capital, utilizing digital technologies like big data and artificial intelligence, creates a "digital panopticon" – an extension of Bentham's (1787) "Panopticon" into the digital age, differing in that the former relied on physical space surveillance, while the latter achieves precise prediction and manipulation of consumption behavior through data tracking, causing individuals to actively submit to sign discipline under the illusion of "being understood by algorithms" (Baudrillard, For a Critique..., 1972) – continuously strengthening its all-round control over people's lives. By mastering and manipulating human emotions, feelings, and desires, it exerts deeper technological intervention on consumption activities, reconstructing human consumption consciousness to achieve the ultimate goal of capital valorization. In this process, capital strips humans of their subjectivity, attempting to become an "inhuman subject" external to humanity. In essence, it constantly deepens the process of "substance as subject," creating history according to its own logic with self-valorization as its goal, objectifying humans into its appendages. Therefore, Marxist alienation theory remains applicable. "The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to change it." Revolutionary practice is the core of his thought. In his view, the key to liberation lies in eliminating the social foundation that breeds alienation through real, transformative practice – especially revolutionary practice that transforms production relations and abolishes private property. Only by breaking the chains of capitalist rule can the path be opened for the birth of the "free association of producers."

Within the grand narrative of historical dialectics, Marx highly extolled human subjectivity. His pursuit was for "real individuals" (xian shi de ren), in concrete historical practice, to escape the object state of being enslaved by things (commodities, capital), truly becoming masters of themselves and their society, ultimately achieving "human all-round development" (ren de quan mian fa zhan) and the complete return of the lost "historical subjectivity" (li shi zhu ti xing).

Zen thought points directly to the human mind, offering a path of internal awakening distinct from Marxism's external transformation. Its sharpness of wisdom is first embodied in the fundamental refutation of deluded attachments. The Diamond Sutra, Chapter 32, states:

"All conditioned phenomenaAre like dreams, illusions, bubbles, shadows,Like dew and like lightning;Contemplate them thus."

The view of "dependent origination and emptiness" (yuan qi xing kong) is like a vajra sword, thoroughly dismantling the substantial basis of "attachment to self" (wo zhi) and "attachment to dharmas" (fa zhi). "Whatever has form is illusory; if you see all forms as formless, then you see the Tathāgata." The "self" we firmly cling to is merely a provisional phenomenon arising from the dependent origination of the five aggregates (skandhas: form, feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness). The external things ("dharmas") we greedily chase are like "flowers in a mirror or the moon reflected in water" – momentarily arising and ceasing, devoid of inherent nature. This contemplation directly confronts the core illusion manufactured by consumerism – viewing commodity signs as constant, unchanging entities capable of bringing ultimate satisfaction (attachment to dharmas, fa wo zhi), and equating possession with confirmation of self-worth (attachment to self, ren wo zhi). Yinshun's (1988) tracing of the evolution of Chan's "breaking attachments" (po zhi) theory in History of Chinese Chan Buddhism, combined with Lü Cheng's (1979) scholarly exposition of its connotation in A Brief Account of the Development of Chinese Buddhist Thought, jointly reveal the vitality of the "breaking attachments" theory in the modern context, providing deep theoretical support for individuals to free themselves from mental alienation.

After breaking attachments, truth can manifest. Zen is not merely pure theoretical speculation; it particularly emphasizes attaining awakening through concrete cultivation practices (xiu xing shi jian), such as mindfulness (zheng nian), silent illumination (mo zhao), and contemplating critical phrases (can hua tou). D.T. Suzuki (1938), in An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, pointed out that the core of these practices is "directly pointing to the human mind" (zhi zhi ren xin) – Mindfulness is "awareness of the present state of body and mind," silent illumination is "contemplating the original nature in stillness," contemplating critical phrases is "breaking through conceptual clinging through questioning." All three point towards transcending "ego-attachment." Practitioners, in the present moment, thought after thought, directly perceive the true reality of "non-self" (wu wo) and the "emptiness" (kong xing, śūnyatā) of all dharmas, illuminating and dispelling all afflictions including materialistic delusions ("greed, hatred, delusion, arrogance, doubt" – tan chen chi man yi). Thereby, the inherently present, pure, and undefiled "original nature" (zi xing) – synonymous with "Buddha-nature" (fo xing), referring to the clear nature unobscured by deluded thoughts (wang nian) (Platform Sutra, Prajñā Chapter: "The self-nature contains all dharmas; that is greatness. All dharmas are in the nature of people.") – (inner subjectivity / Buddha-nature) is awakened. Its ultimate goal is to achieve a state of inner freedom, unturned by external circumstances (material temptations, social evaluation signs, gain and loss, honor and disgrace), characterized by ease and liberation. As the saying goes, "If the mind can transform things, it is identical to the Tathāgata" (Platform Sutra, Chapter on Doubts and Questions). The subject thereby attains transcendent autonomy and tranquility.

Through Zen contemplation, the subject can reflect on each present act of consumption, thereby breaking through the false sense of satisfaction brought by commodities/signs and the false self-confirmation brought by possessing commodities.

Marxist alienation theory and Zen thought have fundamental differences. Marx developed his critique of alienation under specific historical conditions; the solution he proposed is to overthrow capitalist society through proletarian revolution, thereby achieving human liberation. In short, "Cast away illusions, prepare for struggle." Zen, based on viewing "ego-attachment" as the root of suffering, unfolds its practice, demanding the constant overcoming of "ego-attachment" to ultimately reach the "other shore of nirvāṇa" (nie pan bi an). It demands the elimination of all "discriminating mind" (fen bie xin), viewing all existence equally as temporary phenomena. This inevitably leads to the dissolution of specific historical conditions. Clearly, since Zen does not start from the economic base to critique class society, it inevitably tends towards a purely individual practice or preaching, unable to organize people historically to collectively create their own history, i.e., unable to achieve human species-liberation (ren de lei jie fang). Therefore, the applicable boundaries of Zen thought must be clearly defined, ensuring it does not touch the foundation of historical materialism – "dependent origination and emptiness" cannot be used to negate the objective reality of capitalist alienation; "mental awakening" cannot replace the historical necessity of social revolution.

One emphasizes historical practice, the other emphasizes mental awakening. While seemingly divergent paths, they form a profound and constructive space for dialogue in their ultimate concern for critiquing alienation and seeking true human liberation.

First, alienation theory and Zen thought are complementary in their objects of critique. Within the socio-economic structure of capitalism, alienation theory explores the process of capitalist logic alienating humans: from Marx's alienated labor, to Lukács's (1923) reification in History and Class Consciousness, to the alienated consumption explored by Baudrillard (1970) in The Consumer Society and Agger (1979) in Western Marxism: An Introduction, Marxist alienation theory and its development are rooted in the real conditions of capitalism. They critique the self-valorization of capitalist logic from different dimensions: the generalization of the division of labor, the generalization of commodity exchange, the comprehensive penetration of commodities/signs into consumer life. Zen thought, viewing "ego-attachment" (wo zhi) as the root of all suffering, holds that without "attachment to self" (ren wo zhi), there would be no afflictions, and saṃsāra would naturally cease; without "attachment to dharmas" (fa wo zhi), cognitive obstructions could be severed, breaking all illusions. Thus, alienation theory and Zen thought respectively reveal the dual roots of consumption alienation: the self-valorization of capitalist logic (external, social structural) and the pervasive existence of "ego-attachment" (internal, individual mind-nature). These two roots constitute a dialectical relationship of historical conditionality and subjective agency: Historical conditions define the boundaries of alienation (e.g., the scope of capitalist rule); trans-historical consciousness (e.g., "dependent origination and emptiness") provides the perspective to break through these boundaries – humans must both face the reality of capitalist rule (historical conditionality) and awaken to its non-permanence (trans-historical consciousness), avoiding the extremes of "either total acceptance or nihilistic negation." Trans-historical consciousness influences historical conditions through individual action: When individuals, awakened to "dependent origination and emptiness," reject sign consumption, they reduce participation in capital valorization; when this awakening forms a group consensus (e.g., the "minimalism movement"), it forces capital to adjust its production logic (e.g., more enterprises turning to practical value production), embodying the transmission chain of "individual mind-nature change → social cultural change → historical condition change."

Second, alienation theory and Zen thought are complementary in their problem orientation. As discussed, alienation theory explores the alienation of humans by capitalist logic, its aim being to explore the path to human liberation. Zen thought explores the harm of "ego-attachment," its intent being to achieve individual liberation. Therefore, the ultimate orientation of alienation theory is human species-liberation (ren de lei jie fang), while Zen thought takes individual human liberation as its goal. Admittedly, in history, the liberation of one or a few individuals often brought enslavement to the majority; Zen thought has long existed as a tool for rulers to oppress the ruled and thus has not truly brought human liberation. But it must be acknowledged that human liberation is a long historical process, undergoing three stages: (1) "In its first form it is only the generalization and completion of the relation of private property"; (2) "In its political character it is democratic or despotic; it is the abolition of the state, but at the same time still incomplete and under the influence of private property, i.e., of human self-alienation"; (3) "Communism is the positive supersession of private property as human self-alienation, and therefore the real appropriation of the human essence through and for man; it is the complete restoration of man to himself as a social, i.e., human, being, a restoration which has become conscious and which takes place within the entire wealth of previous development" (Marx (1844) Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844). The full realization of communism requires the highly developed productive forces of society, the great abundance of social products, the elimination of private ownership of the means of production to achieve social fairness and justice, the great elevation of people's spiritual realm, and a high degree of harmony between humans and nature, humans and society, humans and humans, and within humans themselves (body and mind). This requires sufficient historical conditions to achieve. Under the insufficient development of historical conditions in consumer society, modern people endure the dual alienation of consumption alienation and mental alienation. Although consumption alienation cannot be completely resolved, for the individual, overcoming mental alienation can still resolve the psychological enslavement and impact caused by consumption alienation. Therefore, alienation theory and Zen thought have a complementary relationship in problem orientation concerning future vs. present, humanity vs. individual, and society vs. psychology.

Finally, alienation theory and Zen thought are complementary in their paths to liberation. Based on exposing the external root of capitalist logic's self-valorization, Marxist alienation theory emphasizes revolution based on the development of productive forces and world intercourse to eliminate forced universal division of labor and capitalist private property, ultimately overcoming alienation and achieving communism: "This 'alienation' (to use a term which will be comprehensible to the philosophers) can, of course, only be abolished given two practical premises. For it to become an 'intolerable' power, i.e., a power against which men make a revolution, it must necessarily have rendered the great mass of humanity 'propertyless,' and produced, at the same time, the contradiction of an existing world of wealth and culture, both of which conditions presuppose a great increase in productive power, a high degree of its development.... Finally, from the conception of history we have sketched we obtain these further conclusions: ... (3) Each extension of intercourse would abolish local communism. Empirically, communism is only possible as the act of the dominant peoples 'all at once' and simultaneously, which presupposes the universal development of productive forces and the world intercourse bound up with communism" (Marx & Engels (1845-1846) The German Ideology). Zen thought, targeting "ego-attachment," points to methods for realizing "selflessness" (wo kong). The Platform Sutra, Chapter on Concentration and Wisdom, states:

"The Way must be fluid and unobstructed; why block it? If the mind does not dwell on dharmas, the Way flows freely. If the mind dwells on dharmas, that is called self-bondage.... This Dharma-gate of mine, from ancient times, has first taken no-thought as its doctrine, no-form as its substance, and no-dwelling as its basis. No-form means to be apart from form while in form. No-thought means not to think even when involved in thought. No-dwelling is the original nature of man: in the midst of worldly good and evil, beauty and ugliness, even enmity and intimacy, when words are offensive or contentious, to regard them all as empty, without thought of retribution; in thought after thought, not to think of past states. If past, present, and future thoughts follow one another without cease, that is bondage. In all dharmas, in thought after thought not dwelling, then there is no bondage. This is taking no-dwelling as the basis."

The Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, Chapter of Universal Eye Bodhisattva, also states:

"This deluded mind, without the six dusts [sense objects], cannot exist. When the four great elements decompose, no dust can be found. Among them, the conditioned dusts each return to dispersion and extinction; ultimately, no conditioned mind can be seen.... When the illusory body of those sentient beings ceases, the illusory mind also ceases; when the illusory mind ceases, the illusory dusts also cease; when the illusory dusts cease, cessation itself also ceases; when cessation ceases, non-illusion does not cease. It is like polishing a mirror; when the grime is exhausted, brightness appears.... You should know that body and mind are both illusory grime; when the grime is eternally extinguished, the ten directions are pure.... When grime is exhausted and opposition eliminated, there is no opposing grime nor anyone who speaks of it."

That is to say, one should keep this mind flowing freely, not dwelling on specific things. Although acknowledging the existence of all things, only when this mind "in thought after thought does not dwell" will "ego-attachment" not arise. Ultimately, even the clinging to "in thought after thought not dwelling" should be abandoned. Only by extinguishing the illusory body and illusory mind can one truly perceive the "Middle Way" (zhong dao, madhyamā-pratipad) of provisional existence and inherent emptiness. After severing the erroneous notions of "ego-attachment," one can realize the Buddhist doctrines of "no-self in persons" (ren wu wo, pudgala-nairātmya) and "no-self in dharmas" (fa wu wo, dharma-nairātmya), attaining the original state of all dharmas: "emptiness of self" (ren wo kong) and "emptiness of dharmas" (fa wo kong). So-called "no-self in persons" means a person is formed by the provisional combination of the five aggregates, lacking a constant, independent, self-mastering subject-self. So-called "no-self in dharmas" means all dharmas arise from dependent origination, constantly changing, lacking a constant ruler. Only by realizing "emptiness of self" can one realize the true self of a person, the "true self" (zhen wo).

It is evident that alienation theory emphasizes transforming the external environment through collective, revolutionary social practice under specific historical conditions, while Zen thought emphasizes purifying the inner world through individual, continuous cultivation. Their combination points towards a more complete path to liberation – "inner clarity, outer governance" (nei ming wai zhi). It reveals to us: To thoroughly resolve alienation, we need both to transform the socio-economic structure that manufactures objectifying oppression and individual awakening to break the alienated logic internalized in the mind and shackling the spirit.