The Phoenix Universe Model: Death and Rebirth Through Gravitational Collapse

1. Introduction

The Phoenix Universe Model: Death and Rebirth Through Gravitational Collapse (The PU Model) proposes a framework where the universe undergoes perpetual cycles of expansion and gravitational collapse, eliminating the need for an entropy-driven heat death. The framework is built using confirmed observational data and logically concludes that the data overwhelmingly supports a cyclic universe. The model proposes that observed phenomena of large-scale structure consolidation leads to inevitable gravitational collapse, followed by a new expansion phase, ensuring the continuous restructuring of the universe.

2. Empirically Confirmed Fundamental Principles

• Structure Consolidation Leads to the Formation of Massive Structures: Galaxy clusters, superclusters, and filaments continue merging, increasing local mass concentration. Observational evidence suggests that mass aggregation is a continuous process despite the overarching cosmic expansion 1.
• Massive Structures Generate Stronger Gravitational Fields, Leading to Accelerated Consolidation:“Gravity is determined by how much mass a given material has, so the more mass an object has, the stronger its gravitational pull.” 2 Stronger Gravitational Fields pull in more in surrounding matter accelerating the collapse process. “Galaxies in the early Universe appear to have grown too big too fast, assembling into massive, monolithic objects more rapidly than anticipated in the hierarchical Lambda cold dark matter (ΛCDM) structure formation paradigm”, (McGaugh et al., 2024) 3.
• More Consolidation Results in Higher Mass-Energy Density Concentration: The increasing density of cosmic structures alters the large-scale dynamics of the universe, intensifying gravitational interactions. Dr. Minh Nguyen, a postdoctoral research fellow in the U-M Department of Physics, explains, “Throughout cosmic time, initially small clumps of mass attract and accumulate more matter through gravitational interaction. As these regions become denser, they eventually collapse under their own gravity, leading to what we refer to as growth.” 4 It is important to note that this is in the context of a research paper “Evidence for Suppression of Structure Growth in the Concordance Cosmological Model” 5 that finds that as dark energy fuels the universe’s expansion, it also suppresses the growth of cosmic structures, contrary to conventional expectations. However, there are theories that dark energy will dissipate, and universal expansion will not only slow down but stop. We address this in “f.” below.
• Dark Matter’s Role in Cosmic Evolution: Dark matter, which does not interact electromagnetically but exerts significant gravitational influence, plays a crucial role in binding galaxies and clusters together. Observations of gravitational lensing and cosmic structure formation indicate that dark matter dominates over baryonic matter in shaping large-scale structures. “Scientists first suspected dark matter’s existence over 80 years ago when Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwicky observed that galaxies in the Coma cluster were moving so quickly they should have been flung away into space – yet they remained gravitationally bound to the cluster by unseen matter.” 6

“The evidence for the existence of dark matter has been known from astronomical observations for over eight decades. It has been tested and reinforced since then by a broad range of astronomical data. From the early pioneering observations by Fritz Zwicky in 1933, who showed that the velocities of galaxies in the Coma cluster greatly exceeded the expectations based solely on the sum of the individual galaxy masses, thus requiring significant additional “dark matter,” to observations in the 1970s of the motion of gas and stars in the outskirts of galaxies, to theoretical arguments that showed that the local group and disk galaxies require significant dark matter halos for their dynamical stability, all established the early recognition of the existence of dark matter.” 7

e.

Dark Energy’s Role in Cosmic Expansion: Dark energy is theorized to be responsible for the universe’s accelerating expansion over the past ~5 billion years. Some models suggest that dark energy may dissipate over time, which could allow gravity to reclaim dominance, decelerating or reversing expansion in the future. “Although the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate today, this paper presents a simple mechanism by which a dynamical form of dark energy (known as quintessence) could cause the acceleration to come to end and smoothly transition from expansion to a phase of slow contraction” (Steinhardt et al., 2022) 8.The new clues about dark energy evolving came as part of one of the deepest maps of the cosmos ever created, built using the first year of data collected by the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI). The early results of the survey were released in April 2024“The release of these results was a great day for cosmology, pointing to a ’decreasing’ effect of the dark energy over time, meaning it is evolving and, therefore, not constant after all”, said Luz Ángela García Peñaloza, former DESI team member and a cosmologist at the Universidad ECCI in Columbia 9.

This early indication – cited in this paper when first published in April 2024 – has now been reinforced by new findings from DESI released in March 2025. Arnaud de Mattia, a French physicist involved in analysing the DESI data, told AFP that the standard model is “satisfactory”, but some “tensions” are emerging between observations. When the DESI team combined their new data with other measurements, they found “signs that the impact of dark energy may be weakening over time,” according to a statement.” When we combine all the cosmological data, it favours that the universe’s expansion was accelerating at a slightly higher rate around seven billion years ago,” de Mattia said 10.

The DESI survey now suggests that the universe’s expansion was accelerating at a slightly higher rate around seven billion years ago, implying that it may not be constant and is slowing down. If confirmed, this evolution of dark energy directly supports the premise of this model: that dark energy may dissipate, allowing gravitational forces to regain dominance and eventually reverse the expansion of the universe.

However, it is important to state that these findings are not conclusive but are additional confirmation to the findings released in April 2024.

f.

Once Mass-Energy Density Exceeds Friedmann’s Critical Density, Collapse Becomes Inevitable: Friedmann’s equations provide a framework for determining the balance between expansion and collapse. Once a sufficient threshold is surpassed, universal contraction is unavoidable 11.

3. The Universe’s Genesis – From the Big Bang to the Present Day

• The Big Bang (~13.8 billion years ago) → The universe originates from a high-energy singularity, beginning a period of rapid expansion.
• Inflation Era → The universe expands exponentially in a fraction of a second, smoothing out density fluctuations and setting the stage for cosmic structure formation.
• Recombination (~380,000 years after Big Bang) → The universe cools enough for neutral atoms to form, allowing light to travel freely and creating the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
• The First Stars and Galaxies (~100-500 million years after Big Bang) → Matter coalesces into the earliest stars and galaxies, initiating structure formation.
• Formation of Large-Scale Cosmic Structures (~1-3 billion years after Big Bang) → Galaxy clusters, filaments, and the cosmic web begin forming through gravitational interaction.
• The Universe’s Expansion and the Dark Energy Era (~5 billion years ago - Present Day) → After the Big Bang, the universe initially underwent rapid expansion, followed by a period of deceleration due to gravitational attraction. Approximately 5 billion years ago, expansion began to accelerate again, an effect attributed to dark energy becoming the dominant influence.
• Current Status of the Universe → The universe continues to expand, but structure consolidation is ongoing as gravity counteracts expansion locally.

4. Genesis and Renewal – Cycles of Expansion and Collapse Explained

The universe is not a one-time event but a dynamic, self-regulating system that undergoes continuous cycles of expansion and gravitational collapse. In The PU Model, the universe does not progress toward an entropy-driven heat death but instead follows an eternal pattern of structure formation, collapse, and renewal. This cycle ensures the persistent reorganization of mass-energy without requiring an external reset mechanism.

4.1. The Phases of the Cycle

4.1.1. Genesis – The Initial Big Bang

The universe originates from a high-energy singularity or an ultra-dense state, undergoing rapid expansion. The initial conditions provide the necessary mass-energy distribution for cosmic evolution.

4.1.2. Expansion Phase

As the universe expands, large-scale structures such as galaxies, clusters, and filaments begin to form. Dark energy plays a dominant role in driving accelerated expansion, counteracting gravitational attraction.

4.1.3. Dark Energy Dissipation

Over time, dark energy may weaken or dissipate, reducing its influence on cosmic expansion. As a result, gravitational interactions become more dominant, slowing down the rate of expansion.

4.1.4. Gravitational Collapse Begins

As mass consolidates into increasingly massive structures, gravity begins to take precedence over expansion forces. Galaxy clusters merge, supermassive black holes coalesce, and mass-energy density increases in localized regions.

4.1.5. Universal Contraction

Once the mass-energy density surpasses a critical threshold, large-scale contraction ensues. The universe transitions from an expansion-dominated phase to a gravitationally dominated phase, where matter is drawn back into high-density configurations.

4.1.6. Renewal – Rebirth of Expansion

At the culmination of the collapse phase, the universe reaches singularity again, and the cycle restarts with a Big Bang, giving rise to a new phase of expansion and structure formation.

4.2. Implications of the Cycle

• A Self-Sustaining Universe: The universe does not require an external intervention to reset – it naturally transitions between expansion and collapse.
• No Heat Death or Entropic Finality: The continuous cycle of gravitational collapse prevents a thermodynamic end-state where useful energy is depleted.
• A Universe Governed by Natural Adjustment: The Law of Natural Adjustment (LNA) dictates that mass-energy redistributes itself to minimize energy expenditure, facilitating smooth transitions between phases.

The concept of a cyclic universe offers a compelling alternative to the prevailing heat death scenario, aligning with observed large-scale structure formation and mass consolidation trends. Future explorations may further refine the specific mechanisms governing the transition from collapse to expansion, solidifying The PU Model as a viable cosmological framework.

5. The Law of Natural Adjustment: A Transcendental Principle

Statement of the Law: “Matter’s configuration is governed by the environment that it is in at any given point in time. When there is a change in the environment, matter adjusts its configuration in a way that requires minimum expenditure of energy. This principle applies to unconfined, large-scale systems where gravitational interactions and mass-energy redistribution dominate, rather than statistical mechanics or entropy-driven constraints.” 12

• Explanation: LNA describes the self-regulating behaviour of mass-energy in the universe. Instead of invoking entropy-driven processes, this principle suggests that structures naturally adjust to the conditions around them, ensuring a dynamic but balanced evolution. At a cosmic scale, this applies to processes such as gravitational collapse, large-scale structure formation, and mass-energy redistribution.
• Preliminary Supporting Evidence: While LNA is not yet an empirically confirmed principle, there are observational phenomena that align with its framework:
  • Cosmic Web Formation: The large-scale structure of the universe naturally emerges as galaxies align along filamentary structures, minimizing energy expenditure.
  • Gravitational Collapse and Structure Formation: The self-organization of galaxy clusters and superclusters follows the path of least resistance dictated by surrounding mass-energy density.
  • Dark Matter Behaviour: Dark matter distributions around galaxies indicate a natural tendency toward equilibrium states rather than chaotic dispersal.

The subsequent subsections elaborate on the Fundamental Principles. We postulate that these are caused by matter following the principles that we have expounded in LNA. While citing them as validation or in support of LNA would amount to circular reasoning, we propose that they are sufficient grounds to justify detailed research into LNA.

6. Explanation Of the Fundamental Principles

6.1. Structure Consolidation Leads to the Formation of Massive Structures

6.1.1. Explanation

The large-scale structure of the universe, consisting of galaxy clusters, superclusters, and cosmic filaments, has emerged naturally due to gravitational attraction. These structures are not randomly distributed but appear along vast interconnected networks, commonly known as the Cosmic Web.

6.1.2. Observational Examples

• Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) – Large-scale mapping of galaxy distributions confirms the filamentary structure of the universe 1314.
• Bullet Cluster and Other Galaxy Collisions – Direct observations of gravitational interactions leading to mass aggregation. “The Bullet Cluster is a massive collection of two large groups of galaxies some 3.8 billion light-years distant. The two groups appear to have collided in one of the most energetic events known in the universe since the Big Bang.” 15
• Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall – One of the largest observed structures, spanning over 10 billion light-years, showing that matter follows preferred pathways of consolidation 16. The biggest thing in the Universe is the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall, measuring 10 billion lightyears across 17.

6.2. Massive Structures Generate Stronger Gravitational Fields, Leading to Accelerated Consolidation

6.2.1. Explanation

As matter accumulates, the gravitational pull of these structures increases, accelerating further consolidation. This is seen in galaxy clusters where mass continues to concentrate despite cosmic expansion.

6.2.2. Observational Examples

• The Great Attractor – A massive gravitational anomaly pulling entire superclusters toward it 18. “The Norma Cluster is the closest massive galaxy cluster to the Milky Way and lies about 220 million light-years away. The enormous mass concentrated here, and the consequent gravitational attraction, mean that this region of space is known to astronomers as the Great Attractor, and it dominates our region of the Universe.” 1920
• Virgo Supercluster – A prime example of how mass accumulation strengthens gravitational fields, drawing in surrounding galaxies 21.
• Dark Matter Halos in Galaxy Formation – Evidence from gravitational lensing suggests that dark matter provides an additional gravitational pull, reinforcing mass consolidation 22.

6.3. More Consolidation Results in Higher Mass-Energy Density Concentration

6.3.1. Explanation

As more mass accumulates, local density increases, leading to stronger gravitational interactions. This process enhances cosmic structure formation, shaping the large-scale distribution of matter. Increased mass-energy density alters the way matter interacts on cosmic scales, influencing the overall evolution of the universe.

6.3.2. Observational Examples

• Galaxy Cluster Mergers – Direct evidence of mass accumulation leading to high-density regions 23.
• Dark Matter Lensing Maps – Show how high-density regions warp spacetime more strongly, revealing areas of extreme concentration. “The strong distortion of space-time by a massive cluster is so significant, that its effect on the shapes of background galaxies is unambiguously detectable….” 24.“Lensing observations and the derived foreground cluster mass distributions have revealed that the bulk of the gravitational potential in clusters comprises the undetected “dark matter” 25.
• Evolution of Superclusters – Observations confirm that as clusters merge, their total mass-energy density increases, reinforcing the process.

6.4. Dark Energy Acceleration, Dissipation and Consolidation

Dark energy, a phenomenon observed over the past ~5 billion years, is theorised to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe 26. While its exact nature remains unknown, it is generally modelled as a cosmological constant or a dynamic field that counteracts gravitational attraction. Some theoretical models suggest that dark energy may not be a permanent force but could dissipate over cosmic time, altering the future evolution of the universe 27.

7. Gravitational Collapse Is Inevitable

The Friedmann’s equations provide a theoretical framework that predicts the behaviour of the universe based on its density. If the mass-energy density surpasses a certain threshold – known as the critical density – gravitational attraction overcomes expansion, leading to a phase of universal contraction. Regardless of the precise numerical value, the principle remains that once a sufficient threshold is reached, gravitational collapse becomes unavoidable 28.

8. Role of The Vera C. Rubin Observatory 29

The evolution of the universe is influenced by the relative densities of dark matter and dark energy, which respond differently to cosmic expansion. While dark matter interacts gravitationally and its density dilutes with expansion, dark energy is believed to remain constant or evolve differently over time. Currently, cosmologists understand little about dark energy, which appears to constitute about 70% of the universe’s energy content. Researchers are focused on determining its properties – its strength, stability, and whether it varies with cosmic time or direction.

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory will play a crucial role in addressing these uncertainties. Through its Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), the observatory will produce detailed maps of dark matter and dark energy distributions, helping to refine our understanding of their interactions. Among its key objectives are:

• Weak Gravitational Lensing: Mapping distortions in galaxy shapes to infer the underlying dark matter distribution.
• Stellar Streams: Observing disruptions in stellar motions that could hint at interactions with unseen mass structures.
• Galaxy Rotation Curves: Extending Vera Rubin’s original work to test deviations from current ΛCDM dark matter predictions.

If dark energy remains dominant, cosmic expansion will continue accelerating, leading to an ever-expanding universe. However, if dark energy dissipates over time, gravitational forces – including those from dark matter – could regain dominance, potentially reversing expansion. By examining unexpected dark matter variations, deviations in stellar streams, and cosmic structural evolution, the Rubin Observatory’s findings may provide direct observational tests for our model, distinguishing between the standard ΛCDM scenario and one driven by gravitationally mediated cosmic evolution.

9. Alternative Mechanisms for Expansion

While this version assumes singularity formation, alternative mechanisms for the rebirth of expansion include:

• Gravitational Rebound from Over-Density → Extreme mass concentration may trigger a rebound effect instead of a true singularity.
• Quantum Fluctuations at High Densities → At ultra-high densities, quantum mechanical effects may induce localized energy instabilities, leading to expansion.
• Dark Energy Regeneration → Dark energy may be an emergent property of large-scale low-density regions and could naturally arise post-collapse.

10. The Challenge of Empirical Verification: Beyond Current Observational Limits

Scientific models are built upon a combination of empirical observations, logical consistency, and theoretical extrapolations. However, the nature of the universe imposes inherent observational constraints that prevent direct verification of certain concepts. This does not diminish their validity but highlights the challenges in obtaining definitive proof. The following concepts are foundational to the The PU Model but remain beyond the reach of current observational capabilities.

10.1. Concepts with Logical Basis But Limited Observational Validation

10.1.1. The Law of Natural Adjustment (LNA)

LNA provides a unifying principle for the self-regulating behaviour of mass-energy on cosmic scales. While its effects align with observed phenomena, there is no direct experimental method to confirm it as a universal law. Given the vast scales and timescales involved, observational validation may remain elusive.

10.1.2. Friedmann’s Equation and Critical Density

Friedmann’s equations describe the dynamics of the universe based on mass-energy density. However, these equations rely on assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy, which are approximations rather than directly provable facts. Moreover, the critical density threshold for gravitational collapse is dependent on observational estimates of total mass-energy, which remain uncertain.

10.1.3. Dark Matter

The effects of dark matter – such as galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, and large-scale structure formation – are well documented. However, dark matter itself remains undetected, with no direct experimental confirmation of its composition. Until its true nature is identified, its status remains an open question in cosmology.

10.1.4. Dark Energy

Dark energy is invoked to explain the accelerated expansion of the universe, yet its origin and nature remain speculative. It has only been inferred through indirect observations, such as Type Ia supernovae measurements and CMB fluctuations. Whether dark energy is a true cosmological constant or a dynamic field evolving over time is still unknown.

10.1.5. The True Large-Scale Structure of the Universe Beyond the Observable Horizon

The assumption that the universe beyond our observable horizon behaves similarly to the portion we can see is based on the Cosmological Principle. However, this assumption is untestable, as no information from beyond this horizon can ever reach us. Any conclusions about the overall nature of the universe remain theoretical.

10.1.6. Potential Variability of Physical Constants over Cosmic Timescales

Some alternative models propose that fundamental constants, such as the gravitational constant (⁠G) or the properties of dark energy, might evolve over cosmic time. Testing such variations would require observations across distances and timescales that exceed current capabilities.

While these concepts remain beyond direct empirical verification, they are grounded in sound theoretical reasoning and supported by indirect evidence. The challenge of testing them does not invalidate their relevance but rather highlights the limitations of current observational science. As technology advances, new methods may emerge to further constrain or confirm these ideas, reshaping our understanding of the cosmos.

11. Conclusion

The PU Model presents a compelling alternative to the traditional heat death scenario if we look at the Universe as a complex, evolving system in which entropy is not a meaningful concept. From that perspective, we free the Universe from the shackles of the Second Law of Thermodynamics (2nd Law) by which it was forcibly bound, not by a reasoned process but by the indiscriminate and reckless application of the law to domains for which it was never framed. Instead, we apply the newly proposed Law of Natural Adjustment and demonstrate that once entropy in the context of the Universe is discarded, immediately the natural, continuous cycle of expansion and gravitational collapse, expansion, that had hitherto remained obscured by the screen of darkness of the 2nd Law, is revealed in all its glory. This model is supported by empirical evidence of structure consolidation, gravitational interactions, and the observed dominance of mass-energy redistribution over entropic decay.

Unlike conventional models that predict a final thermodynamic equilibrium, The PU Model posits that the universe is self-sustaining, with gravitational collapse resetting entropy and allowing structural evolution to continue indefinitely. Each phase of expansion and contraction represents a natural progression in cosmic evolution rather than separate, disconnected events.

While some aspects of The PU Model remain beyond direct empirical validation, the model is built upon well-established principles of large-scale gravitational dynamics, dark matter interactions, and the potential variability of dark energy. As technology advances, future observations may provide further insights into the mechanisms governing universal collapse and rebirth, refining the model’s framework.

Ultimately, The PU Model redefines the universe as a dynamic, ever-evolving entity, challenging the prevailing view of an inevitable thermodynamic demise. By shifting the perspective from an entropic end-state to a cyclic, gravity-driven process, this model opens new avenues for understanding the fundamental nature of cosmic evolution.