Icy Balls That May Be A New Kind of Star Connect the Maths and Quanta of this Universe to the Dark Universe

Introduction to Vector-Tensor-Scalar (VTS) Geometry

The following method of building planets is preferred to collisions between rocks and dust in the disk because most planetary systems seem to outweigh the protoplanetary disks in which they formed, leaving astronomers to re-evaluate planet-formation theories [1].

Figure 1. Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry: Parallelogram With Diagonal and Central Higgs Boson (Horizontal Direction = Graviton Vector; Vertical = Photon Vector). The deep link between geometry and topology (the Hodge Conjecture) may be about vector-tensor-scalar geometry plus the topological Mobius band and figure-8 Klein bottle (with addition of Wick rotation and the binary digits).

Figure 1. Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry: Parallelogram With Diagonal and Central Higgs Boson (Horizontal Direction = Graviton Vector; Vertical = Photon Vector). The deep link between geometry and topology (the Hodge Conjecture) may be about vector-tensor-scalar geometry plus the topological Mobius band and figure-8 Klein bottle (with addition of Wick rotation and the binary digits).

(Figure drawn by author using Paint program on laptop)

The graviton vector and photon vector can be pictured as adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Tensor calculus converts the coordinates of the sides into those of a diagonal representing the interaction of the sides’ vectors. It’s known that photons and gravitons interact because General Relativity says a light ray sent from a star and passing by the Sun is deflected 1.75 arcseconds from its original path by the Sun’s gravity. The sides’ coordinates can also be changed into a point on the diagonal. A position on a line that only has magnitude is called a scalar variable and this scalar is associated with particles of spin zero. [2] Since the Higgs boson is scalar, the point on the diagonal represents the Higgs boson which is obviously related to the graviton. The Higgs field is therefore intimately related to the gravitational (and its associated electromagnetic) field. The Higgs field may be regarded as a unification of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields. The pressure generated by photon-graviton interaction may be identified as mass, just as electromagnetic forces between your hand and the object you’re touching are interpreted as the object’s solidity. Photon-graviton interaction can, using William Rowan Hamilton’s 1843 definition of quaternions as the quotient of two vectors, [3] produce 1/2 which is the quantum spin of all particles of matter. Photon spin is 1, graviton spin is 2, and their interaction can also produce 2/1 which is the quantum spin of the graviton. An assembly of countless gravitons might form the intense gravity of a stellar, intermediate-mass, or supermassive black hole. Examples of quantum spin -

1)

Photon divided by graviton = spin 1/2 of all matter particles.

2)

Graviton divided by photon = spin 2/1 which may be responsible for the intense gravity of black holes.

3)

Using time reversal in case of graviton: 1+2-2 = spin of nuclear-force bosons. It also equals photon spin - establishing a link between gravitation’s spin 2, electromagnetism, and the nuclear forces.

4)

Speaking of the Higgs which resides on the diagonal in Figure 1 and has spin 0: zero can be arrived at through (1 - 2) + 1 which uses the experimental data of a photon existing in two places simultaneously (it uses the graviton’s spin 2 being taken away from the photon’s spin 1, and the spin motion of 1 being in more than one place at the same time). (Paragraph from [4])

Applying VTS Geometry to Icy Balls and Solar/Stellar Formation

The introduction to VTS geometry builds on Albert Einstein’s paper “Do gravitational fields play an essential role in the structure of elementary particles?” [5] A common objection to the accuracy of this paper is that it makes no mention of the strong and weak nuclear forces discovered in the 1930s. Einstein could only speak of the relation between gravitation and electromagnetism since they were the only known forces when he wrote his paper in 1919. However, he was correct to not be worried about the omission because, as noted in the introduction, the photon-graviton interaction of VTS geometry is capable of producing the mass and quantum spin of the nuclear bosons.

The strong force’s massless gluon could be produced by describing the boson with imaginary numbers (where the square of numbers produces negatives). In other words, the other nuclear bosons are created by addition of the photonic and gravitonic momenta but the gluon might form from subtraction of their momenta i.e. positive momentum of one photon minus the positive momentum of 10^36 gravitons (gravity is incredibly weak) equals a massless gluon when the quantum spin equals 1.

Since it’s possible to describe experimental observations without quarks, VTS geometry will use wave-particle duality in a different way from normal by not using quarks (the particle component of duality) but by emphasizing the wave portion of gravitational and electromagnetic waves. Figure 1 can be used to generate each of the particles composing the icy ball/ new kind of star - carbon monoxide, silicon monoxide, hydrogen, ice (which could be made of water, nitrogen, ammonia, methane …). In this article, up- and down-quarks will be bypassed in favour of going directly to neutrons and protons.

To form water, Figure 1 might produce H20 by generating an electron orbiting a proton, repeating that process once, then bonding them to an atom that has eight electrons orbiting a nucleus of eight protons and eight neutrons. If the Figures are sequential, only a chain of particles extending in a straight line would be produced. To allow orbits or a multi-particle nucleus, the figures need to form a 3^rd dimension and may therefore be layered. The icy ball/new kind of star seems to have the contradictory characteristic of being cold enough to have abundant ice but also possessing infrared emission like a star. VTS Geometry is not necessarily temperature-dependent, therefore the geometry appears to be capable of building layers of ice around the particles of fusion-producing hydrogen. Perhaps the fusion, emitting infrared and every other type of energy, results from a new cosmological entanglement that’s related to Figure 1.

This form of entanglement - not limited to laboratories and temperatures near absolute zero - might be achieved by adaptation of cosmology's holographic principle. The principle says the 3rd dimension results from information in a 2nd dimension. If every particle (even the photon and graviton) has many positive and negative electric charges that potentially cancel, the charges would - as electronics shows - produce binary digits making the 2^nd and all dimensions programmable. By reprogramming that 2nd dimension, the 3rd dimension (and thus, distance) is feasibly totally removed between the centres of particles or wave functions, physically quantum-entangling them. Wick rotation’s x-axis could describe the 4 known dimensions of space-time while its y-axis could describe the physical quantum entanglement of particles and waveforms achieved with the holographic principle. Being different from ordinary space-time and incorporating Wick Rotation’s imaginary numbers, the holographic entanglement’s lack of distances in space and time might produce “imaginary space” and “imaginary time”. [6]

Topological Propulsion/Manufacturing + Retarded/Advanced Waves

When Figure 1’s parallelogram is visualized in three dimensions, this physical cosmological entanglement can be compared to “collapse” of the 3-dimensional analogue of the parallelogram. The bottom and top would have no distance between them. This would result in a shape having two dimensions and a single surface viz. topology’s Mobius strip - along which particles like photons, gravitons, and electrons could travel. Electricity, and its associated magnetism, traversing an array of these single surfaces could produce what might be called "topological propulsion" and photon-graviton interaction could produce any and all particles, forming a 100% emissions-free “topological manufacturing” which is applicable to every factory and powered form of transportation. [8] This collapse is a form of warping of space. Reverting to 2-dimensional description of the collapse, lines AB and DC become AC). If the sides AD and BC merge to also become AC, a zero-dimensional shape is produced i.e. a point with no length, width, or depth (it has no size and tells about the location only). Cosmological or holographic entanglement may be limited to deleting space and time in only one direction whereas the point exercise of the previous sentence might remove space-time in every direction.

There are four hints that everything in what is called space-time is subject to Complex (in the mathematical sense) explanation i.e. as some arrangement of both Real and Imaginary numbers - 1) the lack of distances between stars or galaxies called imaginary space, 2) the lack of distances between years and centuries referred to as imaginary time, 3) The strong force’s massless gluon could be produced by describing the boson with imaginary numbers (where the square of numbers produces negatives), and 4) the anticlockwise rotation of A, B, C, and D in Figure 1 is analogous to the anticlockwise motion in the Complex Plane’s Wick Rotation: whenever a point on the complex plane is multiplied by i, it moves a quarter rotation around the origin or centre of the plane.

Figure 3. The Mobius Strip, which is two-dimensional and only has one surface (source: http://www.clker.com/cliparts/3/7/ a/9/1220546534781713951lummie_Mobius_Strip.svg.hi.png).

Figure 3. The Mobius Strip, which is two-dimensional and only has one surface (source: http://www.clker.com/cliparts/3/7/ a/9/1220546534781713951lummie_Mobius_Strip.svg.hi.png).

“When we solve (19th-century Scottish physicist James Clerk) Maxwell's equations for light, we find not one but two solutions: a 'retarded' wave, which represents the standard motion of light from one point to another; but also an 'advanced' wave, where the light beam goes backward in time.” [9]

Einstein's equations say gravitational fields carry enough information about electromagnetism to allow Maxwell's equations to be restated in terms of these gravitational fields. This was discovered by the mathematical physicist George Yuri Rainich. [10] It’s therefore likely that gravitational waves also possess retarded and advanced portions.

John G. Cramer wrote in his 2022 Internet article "Advanced Waves Detected" - “In summary, it appears that advanced waves do exist and have been detected. Much more work must be done to ensure that this effect is real and can be extended, but the physics implications are gigantic.” [11]

If Einstein and this article are correct about graviton-photon interaction being responsible for the generation of mass, the retarded and advanced waves associated with both gravitation and electromagnetism would produce mass (though they violate the everyday concept of purely linear time, advanced waves have apparently been detected). Therefore, the masslessness of gluons might be produced by retarded and advanced waves cancelling. They neutralise each other, producing a mass of zero and relating gluons to the Higgs boson whose zero quantity is its quantum spin.

The retarded waves that can be regarded as travelling forwards in time can be described using real numbers. The advanced waves which can be thought of as journeying back in time might be explained by imaginary numbers. As stated in the 2^nd paragraph of Applying VTS Geometry to Icy Balls and Solar/Stellar Formation, “The strong force’s massless gluon could be produced by describing the boson with imaginary numbers (where the square of numbers produces negatives).” These negative products of squared imaginaries fits in with a science paper [12] involving what it calls “negative time”. Aephraim Steinberg, one of the authors, defends use of the term negative time but says, "We don't want to say anything traveled backward in time". Viewing a gluon’s advanced waves as description of the boson with imaginary numbers fits in with nothing going back in time. However, it may be possible that imaginary numbers do permit things to travel back (and forwards) in time.

Brownian Motion + Riemann Hypothesis + Dark Matter/Dark Energy

Since a future theory of Quantum Gravity may show that space-time is physically unified, Mercury’s particles would then connect to the photons and gravitons in space. Brownian motion, which is seemingly random movement of particles in a fluid due to collisions with atoms or molecules, was named after the Scottish botanist Robert Brown who first wrote about it in 1827. The seemingly random motion could surely translate into orderly rotation and precession under a couple of circumstances - a) because the interdisciplinary science and mathematics of Chaos theory states there is hidden order in randomness and apparent disorder, and b) if quantum mechanics obeys quantum certainty and the principle of determinacy (see the last sentence in the next paragraph). With unification, Mercury’s orbit in space would, like its particles, rotate and precess. The precession is magnified by Mercury’s closeness to the Sun’s particles but extends to the farthest reaches of the solar system. It might even be responsible for the strange orbits of Kuiper Belt Objects residing beyond Neptune, making the possible existence of Planet 9 - or a mini black hole - an impossibility.

The Riemann hypothesis, proposed in 1859 by the German mathematician Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, is fascinating. It deals with the distribution of prime numbers and is concerned with “nontrivial zeros” on the “critical line”, stating that these zeros lie on the vertical axis of the Complex Plane i.e. on the y-axis in then-undiscovered Wick rotation. Mercury’s particles and orbit are related to Wick since they rotate. Since the critical line links Wick rotation to the Riemann hypothesis, Mercury’s particles/orbit - and spacetime in general - may be describable by Riemann. The critical line pertains to zeros - so the distances in space-time that could be described by the Riemann hypothesis might equal zero, making time travel to both the past and future * possible as well as making instant intergalactic travel feasible. This seems to be related to the Holographic Principle stating that the 3rd dimension is a projection of information from the 2nd dimension. Distance in the 3^rd dimension can be circumvented by reprogramming the ones and zeros in the precise, merely superficially probabilistic, Quantum Mechanics proposed here (exact calculations can be attained by considering the BITS of 1 and 0 as Hidden Variables not confined to one locality but compatible with quantum entanglement).

* To explain possible time travel with the advanced waves loved by Richard Feynman - Advanced waves travel back in time and when combined with the retarded waves which go forwards in time, their entanglement would result in an "eternal present" necessary for time travel. Touring the centuries is possibly attainable by the future or past destination being reached by a computer using tensor calculus to change the present coordinates in Wick Rotation to ones in the future or past. To use a simple example confined to two dimensions: -1,+ i becomes +1, -i. (See Figure 2) To use complex numbers - imaginary numbers +i and -i can be combined to create the real number 0 which represents temporal entanglement or the absence of separation/distance between, say, the Stone Age and the 100^th century. To transfer coordinates from the purely mathematical Wick Rotation to the physical world, Figure 2 could be compared to the familiar DVD (albeit an infinite one). Coordinates belonging to sights and sounds in the middle of the disk (symbolizing the present) might be reprogrammed into coordinates at the start or end of the disk (respectively, points in the past and future). The concepts of cause and effect are no longer separate when all periods of time are united, and everything can happen “at once”. This is similar to watching a DVD – every event on the DVD exists at once since the whole DVD exists but we’re only aware of sights and sounds occurring in each tiny fraction of a second.)

This paragraph is reminiscent of an item in the journal "IPI Letters". [13] To first briefly summarize some relevant points from the present article - The one-dimensional (1D) electric pulses resulting in the binary digits of one and zero encode 2D Mobius strips ^^ which, according to this comment, include Wick rotation that describes the 4^th dimension of time. A pair of Mobius strips unite to form a figure-8 Klein bottle (Mobius Doublet) which is immersed in 3D. Trillions of Mobius strips and Mobius Doublets form, respectively, photons and gravitons which interact and form the pressure known as mass of fermions and the Higgs or nuclear-force bosons. This paragraph explains how dark matter is so ultralight that it isn't a particle any more. As Ashlee Caddell, one of the authors of [14] said when referring to her team’s paper, “Dark matter in this case acts like a wave, because its mass is very very low”. The item in IPI Letters is based on a paper Einstein wrote in 1919. It results from a process, comparable to electrolysis, reducing particles of ordinary matter to the photons and gravitons which Einstein suggested compose matter. This Electric Dipole Moment - where, in theory, every particle can possess potentially cancelling positive and negative charges - generates bits (binary digits) which can be thought of as dark matter. The electrical energy decomposing the matter can be considered as dark energy that's in the same ballgame as dark matter, and is not related to alleged universal expansion. Using mathematics' circular diagram of Wick rotation - not regarded here as mere mathematical convenience - the binary digits can be recycled by first being built up into photons/gravitons and then into matter particles again (by vector-tensor-scalar geometry).

Returning to Ms. Caddell’s statement - if dark matter acts like a wave (a wave of binary digits, according to the previous paragraph), the above means dark energy and familiar mass-energy can also be considered in terms of binary digits. Not only does this hint at the possibility of creating matter through the coding of 1’s and 0’s, but the impossible becomes at least conceivable. Waves of energy might be able to be programmed into existence. Some well known scientists – John Wheeler, Erik Verlinde, Max Tegmark, Edward Fredkin, Melvin Vopson - suggest that information is fundamental to the physics of the universe, and that computer-generated / mathematical formulas create reality. In the case of waves being digital, the waves would not merely be described by mathematics but would literally be the result of maths. A 3D (three dimensional) cube can be regarded as a reality coded on a 2D surface - in other words, the cube is a projection from a square. The 2D square would be a nonlinear (angular) math object resulting from adding four lines on a surface, each one being separated from those adjoining it by 90 degrees. The cubic shape would result from adding, in one direction, multiple layers of the information in the square. Instead of programming a set of points to follow a straight line, they can be represented curvilinearly as a waveform and described by Fourier analysis, v=f(lambda), amplitude, wavelength or frequency, etc. Interacting particles can produce waves just as masses can curve spacetime to create gravitation and gravitational waves. VTS Geometry plausibly explains the inverse – it doesn’t exclusively regard mass as the producer of gravity but also regards gravity, partnering with electromagnetism, as producer of mass. Inverting quantum mechanics, the inverse law states that waves produce particles.

^^ A paper says all of the data in the cosmos is contained in 2D packages trillions of times tinier than atoms (in this instance, the 2 dimensional package is the Mobius Strip. [15]