Impact of Climate Change on Water Quality and Sustainability in Baluchistan: Pakistan’s Challenges in Meeting United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs)

1. Introduction

Pakistan with a population of 247 million [1] is seriously impacted by the adverse impacts of climate change and ranks 5th on climate vulnerability index [2], which has profound implications for the water availability, quality and distributions system. Contaminated water has emerged as a prominent issue in Pakistan, attributable to multiple sources [3]. The primary reasons are elevated temperatures, which raise the heat levels of drinking water, as well as the presence of organic compounds, microorganisms, heavy metals, and nutrients [4]. Water contamination in Pakistan arises from geological and natural factors, including chemicals, herbicides, pesticides, oil refining, coal mining, inappropriate waste disposal, and septic tank leakage [5]. Access to safe drinking water in Pakistan, both surface and underground, is in a dreadful state. Apathy manifests in both urban and rural areas [6]. Moreover, the per capita supply of water is rapidly declining, and Pakistan is classified as a “water stressed” nation, which is expected to transit to a “water scarce” status in the coming years [7]. Figure 1. indicate water availability and projected demand by year 2025.

The evolving situation present numerous challenges for the residents, who are heavily reliant on agricultural as an employment and food security, hence exacerbating human security concerns [8]. It adversely affects energy-producing companies reliant on hydrological methods for industrial and domestic users. Water contamination in Pakistan has reached a critical level, with approximately 80% of the population compelled to consume contaminated water, while merely 20% having access to safe drinking water [9]. The climate change is also adversely impacting the water availability and quality especially, in the province of Baluchistan, where data of 2022 to 2024 reveal changes in the precipitation patterns causing heavy floods and droughts in the same year from 2022 to 2024. The map data produced by Pakistan metrological department for year 2023 is shown in Figure 2. to build the context of evolving climatic variations.

A comprehensive review of existing literature on water resources management indicates that 97.5% of the water covering the Earth’s surface is saline, found in oceans. Freshwater constitutes 2.5%, although less than 1% is accessible for use. Secondly, an additional difficulty is the unequal distribution of accessible fresh water worldwide due to natural systems, in contrast to the global population distribution, significantly affecting water availability in Pakistan. Approximately 785 million individuals worldwide lack access to clean drinking water, with around 100 million in Pakistan at risk of consuming contaminated water [10]. Approximately 70% of the population in Pakistan consumes contaminated water, resulting in the annual death of around 53,000 children under the age of five years due to use of contaminated water [11]. The sources of ground water in Pakistan are shown in Figure 3. which indicates that main source of recharge are rains and canal leakage, which if not preserved well can have the potential contamination effects.

The measures for assessing water quality often encompass the chemical and physical variations resulting from variables such as detergents, pesticides, worn bedrock, sedimentation, temperature runoff, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH). The most persistent challenge regarding global water quality is eutrophication, characterized by elevated levels of phosphorus (P) and lead (Pb) in water, rendering it contaminated and hazardous, hence adversely impacting public health. Water scarcity and contaminated drinking water have become a significant national security concern for Pakistan. The disproportionate distribution of water for agriculture, home and industrial purposes, as well as for potable consumption, has exacerbated water security challenges.

The study investigates Baluchistan’s water resources, their distribution among the districts and different sectors for daily usage and agriculture production. The results of water quality laboratory tests covering all the geographical regions of Baluchistan have given clear insight about the impending health risks on use of contaminated drinking water especially in the rural areas of Baluchistan, which is an alarming trend. The laboratory tests indicated that the quality of drinking water in most samples exceeded the recommended thresholds established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS). Furthermore, the groundwater contamination in Baluchistan is attributable to mining, the open disposal of industrial and domestic waste, and inadequate drainage systems, all of which have led to dilapidated water quality. Comprehensive recommendations are presented in the last part of the study to facilitate the relevant ministries through structured feedback for achieving water related sustainable development goal number 6 by envisaged timeframe of 2030, which is around the corner.

3.1. Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review (SLR) is a structured and deliberate process for discovering, analyzing, and synthesizing current research on a particular subject. The procedure generally commences with the formulation of a precise research question or objective, followed by the creation of a protocol that delineates inclusion and exclusion criteria, search methodologies, and data extraction techniques. Relevant research is located via exhaustive searches of academic databases and additional sources. Subsequently, selected studies undergo comprehensive appraisal for quality and relevance. The findings are ultimately synthesized, employing qualitative or quantitative approaches, to deliver an evidence-based summary of the available literature. In this study, comprehensive literature review on water security issues was conducted covering the prevailing water predicaments of Pakistan in general and Baluchistan in particular. The methodology of SLR was adopted to review the existing data concerning water status in Pakistan. Commencing from 123 shortlisted articles, these were succinctly narrowed down to 67 articles which were most relevant and accordingly incorporated in the study, however, the limitation of very less literature on Baluchistan was obvious. The literature review is presented in the study after the introduction paragraph.

3.2. Study Area

Baluchistan province comprises thirty administrative districts and seven divisions, encompassing both A areas (where police has jurisdiction) and B areas (jurisdiction of law enforcing agencies other than Police). The government’s processes are segmented between the police and other law enforcement entities, each possessing distinct levels of jurisdiction and involvement. Ethnically, the northern territory is predominantly populated by the Pashtuns, and the southern portion is mainly occupied by the Baluchis. The capital city of Quetta and its environs comprise a broad array of ethnic groups. The capital city is relatively developed, featuring significant infrastructure, government edifices, military training facilities, and shopping centers. In the overall national context, geographically the Baluchistan is Pakistan’s biggest province but in HDI and infrastructure point of view, it is lagging in all the provinces. Figure 5. contains Baluchistan’s geographical regions.

3.3. Water Sampling Sites

For detailed examination on the status of water quality in Baluchistan, the water samples from rural and urban areas were collected for subsequent examination and laboratory tests. Eighteen places were designated for sample collection and analysis as given in Figure 6. The laboratory testing was executed at zone centers and later the results were compiled at the province level.

3.4. Laboratory Examination and Water Quality Analysis

The laboratory examination of water samples involved the division of sampling areas and sites into geographical zones as given in Figure 7. for administrative convenience and homogeneity of regions. This was followed by establishment of the group of monitoring stations, sampling frequency, sampling designs, laboratory testing and documenting of the water quality status of each zone.

Water quality laboratory testing was conducted using a stringent protocol to evaluate the biological, chemical and physical properties of water samples. The procedure primarily entailed the gathering of samples from specified sampling locations. Special care was taken in sample preservation to ensure integrity during the transportation to the designated laboratories. A three-step technique was employed in the laboratory testing to ascertain water quality. Following visual inspection, the samples were tested for microbiological analysis to determine the presence of pathogens. In the second stage, a physical analysis was performed to ascertain the levels of turbidity, conductivity, and dissolved solids. The third stage entailed chemical analysis to determine the concentrations of pH, phosphate, and mineral contaminants such as iron, manganese, chloride, lead, and sodium. Finally, the acquired data was analyzed in relation to the established water quality criteria and guidelines provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the national quality standard (NQS) framework for drinking water in Pakistan. The three-step laboratory testing process is described in the ensuing paragraphs.

3.5. Microbiological Examination

The water samples were obtained in sanitized plastic bottles (200 ml). Careful measures were taken to avert any contamination. The samples were obtained from taps that were not leaking at the spindle and gland to avoid external contamination. The samples were carried to the laboratory at a regulated temperature (2⁰C to 8°C) in suitably lightproof and sanitized insulated containers. Water samples containing chlorine traces were treated with sodium thiosulfate to eliminate residual chlorine. Neutralization of chlorine is essential, as its presence may result in the death of bacteria during transport, leading to erroneous results. Special care was taken to ensuring that the interval between sample collection and analysis did not surpass 6 hours. The membrane filtering and multiple tube fermentation procedures were employed to determine the levels of coliform and E. coli, with bacterial counts conducted using a microscope. The membrane filtration technique entailed passing the water sample through a membrane filter with a pore size of 0.45 microns, appropriate for bacterial retention. The filter was subsequently placed on the selective medium m-ColiBlue24 for coliforms and E. coli, and incubated at a temperature ranging from 35°C to 37°C. In the multiple tube fermentation approach, the water sample was serially diluted in tubes containing a lactose broth, thereafter, incubated at a temperature range of 35°C to 37°C, and monitored for color changes indicating the presence or absence of coliforms.

3.6. Physical Examination

A physical investigation was performed to ascertain the levels of dissolved solids, conductivity and turbidity utilizing the designated instruments and methodology. The turbidity meter was utilized for turbidity analysis, commencing with calibration according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, subsequently filling the container with the sampled water for testing, and inserting the turbidity meter to record its reading. The conductivity analysis was conducted using a conductivity meter following the requisite calibration. The conductivity cell was washed with distilled water between measurements. The examination of dissolved solids was conducted by initially filtering the sample to eliminate suspended materials, followed by placing it in a dish that was subsequently heated in an oven to facilitate evaporation, thereby retaining the dissolved solids in the dish. The total dissolved solids (TDS) were determined using the formula: TDS (mg/L) = (weight of solid / volume of sample) x 1000.

3.7. Chemical Examination

Water samples were collected in 0.5 liter and 1.5-liter polystyrene bottles. Prior to sample collection, the bottles were put through extensive washing and rinsing. Boric acid and nitric acid (HNO) were incorporated as preservatives in sampling vials for trace elements and nitrate nitrogen. 2 ml per liter of nitric acid was utilized as a preservative for trace elements, while 1 ml per 100 ml of boric acid served as a preservative. The samples gathered for chemical analysis were taken to the laboratory without refrigeration. A pH meter was utilized for pH analysis following calibration by immersing it in a water sample, and the reading was documented on the form. The phosphate analysis utilized a phosphate test kit, which measured color development following the addition of chemicals to the water sample. The color intensity was quantified via a spectrophotometer. The chloride analysis was conducted through a testing kit that required the addition of reagents to a water sample to create a titratable complex, from which the chlorine concentration was determined through titration. A flame photometer was employed for sodium analysis by placing it in the sample container and recording the sodium concentration reading.

3.8. Supplementary Factors Considered During Investigation

Sample collections from filtration plants and water supply taps were conducted using taps that were devoid of rust, adequately cleaned, and allowed to run for several minutes prior to sample collection. Samples from tubewells were obtained after allowing water to flow for 10 minutes to ensure a representative sample of groundwater. The groundwater depth and tubewell locations were indicated on the topographic survey sheet. Samples from water supply schemes were taken near the source to mitigate the impact of pollution in the distribution system. Correspondingly, samples from hand pumps were obtained following purging, executing one stroke for every foot of depth. The stream samples were obtained by standing in the center and preventing the bottle from contacting the substrate to avoid contamination and extraneous particles. All samples were accompanied by relevant collection forms that included essential information such as sample ID, sample type, sample code, GPS coordinates, and the date and time of collection.

For water quality investigation and analysis, four types of classifications were designated for laboratory tests, as per the details given in Table 1. The samples were collected from multiple sources including tabs, hand pumps, tube wells, springs, reservoirs, streams and local government distribution networks.

The standard sampling pattern guidelines were followed in the selection of sampling sites and detailing of grid sizes implementing a valid criterion; 15 and 25 km² for big cities, 5 and 14 km² for medium cities and 1 km² for small cities. Samples were taken mostly from public usage points and continuous monitoring was ensured. Each monitoring point was 1 to 2 Kms away, and each site was marked according to grid specifications on the testing map. Every sample was also marked for identification. Depending on the type of investigations, A for bacterial analysis, B for trace elements analysis, C for Nitrate (N) analysis and D for other water quality parameters was designated. Table 2. shows the details about sampling design.

The details of samples collected from rural and urban areas of each zone are given in Table 3. The process was spread over entire year of 2024, with the assistance of civil administration of Baluchistan who facilitated the establishment of observation centers and sampling sites.

The water samples underwent extensive laboratory testing in two phases. Phase 1 was from January to June 2024, while phase 2 was undertaken from September to November 2024. The purpose was to examine the water quality of Baluchistan during all four seasons by comparing it with the national standard framework of Pakistan and the American Public Health Association (APHA). The results were subsequently compared with standards parameters given in Table 4. for bacteriological, aesthetic, and physicochemical characteristics.

The water quality was examined within the drinking water permissible limits given in Table 5. The acronyms used in the table are explained here. NDWQS- National Drinking Water Quality Standards, CFU- Colony Forming Unit, TCU- Total Color Units, WHO-World Health Organization, NGVS-No Guidance Value Set, NTU-Turbidity Unit

Risk analysis was done keeping in view the parameters given in Table 6 and Table 7.

Following ranges were considered in results for establishing drinking water quality.

4.1. Zone 1–(Eastern Zone)

Zone 1 represents Loralai, Zhob, Barkhan and Kohlu districts. Popultaion wise, it is densely populated with a developed infrastructure. It is served with different modes of water supply containing springs, river streams, tubewells, hand pumps and water supply schemes. Water samples were collected from 121 sample sites for laboratory examination of water quality. The results indicate presence of arsenic, turbidity, iron, TDS, E Coli and bacteria. Overall, 40% samples were found unsafe and 60% were found safe for drinking. The results of are given in Table 8.

4.2. Zone 2 (Central)

Zone 2 represents Sibbi, Nushki, Kalat, Kharan and Khuzdar districts. In this study, 86 samples were put through laboratory test. Overall, 58% of the water is found contaminated with coliforms, Arsenic, E.coli, TDS and Iron. Overall, 58% sources were found unsafe and 42% were found safe for drinking Table 9. shows the water testing results in zone 2.

4.3. Zone 3 (Western)

Zone 3 represents Panjgur, Dalbadin, Nokkundi and Turbat districts. In this study, 83 samples were put through laboratory test. Overall, 61% of the water is found contaminated with coliforms, Arsenic, E.coli, TDS and Iron and 39% were found safe for drinking Table 10. shows the water testing results in zone 3.

4.4. Zone 4 (Coastal)

Zone 4 represents coastal areas of Jiwani, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara. In this study, 103 samples were put through laboratory test. Overall, 50% of the water is found contaminated with coliforms, Arsenic, E.coli, TDS, Turbidity and Iron and 50% were found safe for drinking. Table 11. shows the water testing results in zone 4.

4.5. Zone 5 (Quetta)

Zone 5 represents Quetta urban centre which is also the capital of Baluchistan having maximum population and well-developed infrastructure. In this study, 206 samples were put through laboratory test. Overall, 43% of the water is found contaminated with coliforms, Arsenic, E.coli, TDS, Turbidity, Fluoride and Iron, whereas, 57% were found safe for drinking. Table 12. shows the water testing results in zone 5.

The laboratory test results of 5 zones spread all over the province of Baluchistan containing rural and urban canters indicate the water quality risk varies from high to medium. Zone 2 and zone 3 are highly contaminated, zone 1, zone 4 and zone 5 are moderately contaminated as shown in Figure 8.

4.6. Causes of Water Contamination in Baluchistan

Water contamination constitutes a significant challenge in Baluchistan, where the arid climate and scarce water resources intensify the issue. The region has a complex water problem stemming from both natural and human-induced factors. The causes can be classified as over-extraction, agricultural and industrial practices, inadequate infrastructure, and natural contamination, all of which provide significant dangers to the health and livelihoods of locals. The over-extraction of groundwater is a primary contributor to water contamination in Baluchistan. The region depends significantly on ground water due to the scarcity of surface water sources like rivers and lakes. The over-extraction of groundwater, especially for agricultural use, has resulted in a notable decline in the water Table The excessive extraction results in the encroachment of salty water into freshwater aquifers, rendering the water unfit for consumption or irrigation. In coastal regions, the incursion of seawater into aquifers has intensified the salinity problems. The reduction in groundwater levels intensifies the concentration of naturally occurring contaminants, including fluoride and arsenic, which presents significant health hazards as well. Agriculture constitutes the backbone of Baluchistan’s economy; nevertheless, redundant farming practices have led to water pollution. The overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides infiltrates water sources via runoff, especially during rainfall or irrigation. This runoff pollutes both surface and groundwater with nitrates, phosphates, and hazardous compounds. These pollutants not only degrade water quality but also adversely affect aquatic ecosystems and render the water unfit for human consumption. Additionally, animal waste from livestock agriculture frequently contaminates water sources, introducing pathogens and organic debris that compromise water safety.

Industrialization and mining operations in Baluchistan, however restricted, constitute a notable source of water pollution. Mining activities for coal, copper, and other minerals frequently discharge deleterious compounds, including heavy metals (lead, arsenic, and mercury) and acid mine drainage, into adjacent water bodies. These pollutants are extremely hazardous and remain in the environment for extended durations. Limited industrial facilities, release untreated wastewater containing dangerous chemicals directly into rivers and streams owing to inadequate waste management systems. This not only contaminates aquatic ecosystems but also presents enduring threats to human health and agriculture. Inadequate wastewater treatment facilities also contribute to water pollution in Baluchistan. Urban regions are deficient in adequate sewage infrastructure, resulting in untreated effluent from residential and commercial sources being frequently released directly into natural water bodies. This effluent comprises a combination of biological and chemical contaminants, including bacteria, viruses, and nutrients that facilitate the proliferation of detrimental algae. In rural regions, open defecation and inadequate sanitation practices exacerbate water quality by contaminating drinking water sources with fecal matter and pathogens. The improper disposal of solid waste, encompassing plastics, dangerous substances, and medical refuse, is a notable contributor to water contamination. Disposing of waste in or adjacent to water bodies, like streams and canals, results in the seeping of detrimental chemicals into the water. Plastics and non-biodegradable substances obstruct streams, while heavy metals from batteries and gadgets contaminate both surface and groundwater. The absence of structured waste management systems exacerbates this issue, especially in urban areas such as Quetta, where population density is significant. Specific regions of Baluchistan are impacted by natural water source contamination. The existence of elevated concentrations of arsenic and fluoride in groundwater is a considerable issue. These toxins emanate from geological formations and are discharged into the water by natural processes. Prolonged ingestion of water with high arsenic concentrations can result in severe health issues, such as cancer, dermal sores, and cardiovascular disorders. Excessive fluoride concentrations induce dental and skeletal problems, particularly impacting children.

Baluchistan’s arid climate makes it particularly vulnerable to climate change, which intensifies water contamination issues. Prolonged droughts reduce the availability of surface water, forcing communities to rely even more heavily on over-extracted groundwater. Reduced water availability also concentrates pollutants, affecting water quality. Additionally, unpredictable rainfall patterns increase the likelihood of flash floods, which wash contaminants from the land into water bodies. Climate change further exacerbates salinity problems in coastal areas due to rising sea levels and seawater intrusion. The lack of a comprehensive water quality monitoring system in Baluchistan is a critical barrier to addressing water contamination challenges. Limited testing facilities and weak regulatory enforcement allow industries, farmers, and households to discharge pollutants into water sources without accountability. Many residents rely on untreated water for drinking and domestic purposes, unaware of its contamination levels. This lack of oversight perpetuates the cycle of pollution and poses significant risks to public health. The deterioration and inadequate maintenance of water supply infrastructure can contribute to water contamination. Leaking pipelines and exposed storage tanks facilitate the infiltration of contaminants, including dust, bacteria, and chemicals, into the water supply. Insufficient safeguarding of wells and boreholes renders them vulnerable to pollution from surface runoff and anthropogenic activities. The deficiency in investment for infrastructure development exacerbates these difficulties, resulting in numerous communities having unsafe drinking water.

4.7. Water Scarcity in Baluchistan

At the time of independence in 1947, Pakistan’s per capita availability of water was 5600 cubic meters, which is consistently decreasing [26] to 5260 cubic meters in 1951 and 1038 cubic meters in 2010. By this projection, by 2025 the water availability is assumed as 877 cubic meters and by 2050 it will reach 575 cubic meters per annum [27]. Figure 9. indicate the projected per capita decline in water from 1951 to 2050.

Water scarcity in Baluchistan is a significant and complex issue, fundamentally linked to the province’s arid climate, mismanagement of water resources, demographic pressures, and socio-economic weaknesses. Baluchistan, Pakistan’s largest province by area, encounters substantial physical and climatic challenges, exacerbated by weak water governance and infrastructural shortcomings. This persistent dilemma endangers both the livelihoods of the local populace and the province’s delicate ecological and economic stability. The severe weather conditions in Baluchistan are a key factor contributing to water scarcity. The province is situated in an arid to semi-arid region, marked by minimal and unpredictable precipitation. The region’s average annual precipitation significantly lags below the national average, inadequate to satisfy the increasing water requirements of its populace, agriculture, and limited industrial usage. The recurrent incidence of droughts intensifies the issue, as extended dry periods further diminish already limited water resources. Climate change has exacerbated these patterns, resulting in heightened variability in precipitation and a greater frequency of extreme weather events, including flash floods and extended droughts, so upsetting conventional water supply patterns. Groundwater constitutes the principal water supply in Baluchistan owing to the scarcity of surface water. Nonetheless, unsustainable extraction methods have resulted in the swift depletion of aquifers. The extensive utilization of tube wells for agricultural and domestic applications has resulted in a significant decline in groundwater levels throughout the province. In many regions, the water table has declined to such an extent that wells have completely dried up, compelling people to excavate deeper at high-priced undertakings. Inefficient water management strategies and antiquated infrastructure substantially exacerbate water scarcity. The province lacks a comprehensive water management system to govern usage and guarantee equitable resource distribution. Dilapidated and inadequately maintained irrigation systems lead to significant water losses from leakage and evaporation. Inadequate storage capacity for rainwater compounds the issue, resulting in a substantial amount of seasonal rainfall being lost as runoff. The absence of small and medium-sized dams for water collecting and storage exacerbates water scarcity issues. Conventional agricultural practices and the growth of water-demanding crops, such as wheat exert significant strain on the region’s scarce water resources. Inefficient irrigation methods, such as flood irrigation, result in considerable water loss. The lack of contemporary irrigation methods, like drip and sprinkler systems, exacerbates the problem, rendering agriculture a significant factor in water scarcity. Urban cities like Quetta are experiencing increasing pressure to satisfy the demands of their expanding population, resulting in excessive dependence on finite groundwater resources. Informal settlements in urban regions frequently lack access to potable water, compelling inhabitants to rely on unregulated sources, hence intensifying over-extraction and depleting communal resources. Moreover, insufficient design for urban water supply and distribution systems exacerbates the existing limitations of water infrastructure. Climate change is an escalating issue that also compliments water scarcity challenges.

Deforestation and environmental degradation have significantly affected the region’s water resources. The reduction of forest cover diminishes the land’s capacity to hold water, resulting in reduced groundwater recharge and heightened surface runoff during precipitation. Soil erosion resulting from deforestation intensifies this issue by diminishing the land’s ability to absorb and retain water. Despite the existence of national water management policies, their implementation in Baluchistan is handicapped by inadequate institutional capacity and weak governance. The absence of cooperation among federal, provincial, and municipal authorities obstructs the formulation and implementation of effective water management programs. Inadequate investment in water infrastructure and a deficiency of political resolve to tackle the issue exacerbate the problem. The water scarcity is also compounded by transboundary water concerns with adjacent provinces. Conflicts regarding the allocation of river water, including the Indus and its tributaries, pose difficulties in guaranteeing a reliable and equitable water supply to Baluchistan. The province’s dependence on upstream areas for water supply renders it susceptible to alterations in water allocation rules or the construction of dams and barrages by adjacent regions, exacerbating its already constrained supplies. Conventional water utilization methods in Baluchistan frequently emphasize agricultural and tribal requirements at the expense of conservation. In numerous regions, water is regarded as a shared resource, resulting in overexploitation and mismanagement.

The reasons for water scarcity in Baluchistan are intricately linked, arising from a blend of natural and anthropogenic forces. The province’s arid climate, excessive dependence on groundwater, inadequate water management, ineffective agricultural techniques, and the effects of climate change all exacerbate the escalating water crisis. Confronting these difficulties necessitates a comprehensive strategy that encompasses investment in water infrastructure, the promotion of sustainable farming methods, the enforcement of appropriate water management policies, and the augmentation of community involvement

5.1. Water Management, Conservation and Distribution

During the harvesting season, water scarcity poses a significant challenge in Pakistan, leading to conflicts between the federation and the provinces. The Council of Common Interest and the 1991 water accord were intended to address grievances related to water allocation; nevertheless, insufficient administration, poor governance, and perceptual disparities between the federation and provinces are significant obstacles. A comprehensive governmental strategy is advised, accompanied by onsite consultation visits by officials of provincial and federal governments, as well as political leaders, to foster consensus and enhance knowledge regarding the complexity associated with the prudent and inclusive utilization of existing water resources. Pakistan possesses the “Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord 1991,” which addresses the equitable allocation of the Indus River System’s waters among the provinces of Pakistan. Nevertheless, due to insufficient clarity, this agreement failed to address the issue stemming from the inequitable allocation of water. The “Indus River System Authority” was founded in 1992 through parliamentary legislation to serve as an agency for the management and monitoring of Indus water resources in Pakistan, ensuring prudent distribution. Nonetheless, the issues with equitable water distribution, monitoring and installation systems, and the operation of treatment plants have never functioned as intended. The eighteenth constitutional amendment designated water distribution between rural and urban areas within each province as an internal provincial concern.

The government of Baluchistan should promote the collection and storage of rainwater through rooftop harvesting systems, community tanks, and surface reservoirs to make use of seasonal rainfall efficiently. By encouraging the adoption of modern irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation, sprinkler systems, and laser land leveling to reduce water wastage in agriculture. The district administrations should revive and maintain the ancient Karez irrigation system to ensure efficient water distribution and recharge groundwater sustainably, alongside conducting educational programs to raise public awareness about water conservation, emphasizing the importance of reducing water wastage in daily activities. It is suggested to enforce policies to monitor and regulate the over-extraction of groundwater, including licensing tube wells and implementing usage caps. There is a need to develop systems to treat and reuse wastewater for non-potable purposes such as irrigation and industrial and cleaning. Encouraging farmers to grow less water-intensive crops that are better suited to Baluchistan’s arid climate. Install water-efficient fixtures such as low-flow faucets, dual-flush toilets, and smart irrigation systems in households, industries, and public spaces. Build small and medium-sized dams, water tanks, and check dams to store runoff and prevent evaporation. Conserve and restore watersheds, wetlands, and forests to improve natural water retention and reduce surface runoff. By engaging local communities in water conservation initiatives, empowering them to manage and distribute water resources equitably and repair leaking pipelines, tanks, and taps to minimize water loss in urban and rural water supply systems. Implement water audits for limited industries, agriculture, and public utilities to identify inefficiencies and improve water use practices. Use meteorological data to anticipate rainfall patterns and prepare storage systems in advance to maximize water retention during wet seasons. The provincial government should develop and enforce laws and policies promoting water conservation, such as mandatory water-saving infrastructure in new construction projects.

5.2. Water Quality Monitoring Mechanism

A water quality monitoring system is a device utilized to measure chlorine levels, suspended particles, pH, total ionic concentrations, and Oxygen-Reduction Potential in water, among other parameters. Various sensors are employed for detection, including Residual Chlorine Sensor, Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Sensor, Turbidity Sensor, Conductivity Sensor, pH Sensor, and Oxygen-Reduction Potential (ORP) Sensor, among others (Smith, 2018). The Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) is tasked with monitoring the quality of safe drinking water in numerous urban and rural areas of Pakistan. On October 20, 2021, a program titled “National Water Quality Monitoring Program” was launched to assess and evaluate the issues pertaining to drinking water throughout Pakistan (PCWR, 2021). To achieve the 6.1 target established by the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Pakistan must double the enhancement of water quality. PCRWR operates a network of 24 water quality laboratories that function continuously throughout Pakistan, diligently striving to enhance the water quality system nationwide. A proposal is made for the process and capacity enhancement of PCRWR, including the establishment of offices and laboratories nationwide, particularly in the undeveloped region of Baluchistan. The government of Baluchistan should establish community-level water filtration plants in rural and urban areas to remove contaminants such as salinity, arsenic, and other pollutants. Distribute low-cost household water purification solutions, such as ceramic filters, chlorination tablets, and portable filtration systems, to underserved communities. Repair and upgrade existing water supply networks, pipelines, and storage tanks to prevent leaks and contamination. Ensure proper sanitation around water sources. Implement the waste-water management systems to prevent the contamination of natural water sources. Establish wastewater treatment facilities in urban and semi-urban areas. Safeguard natural springs and aquifers from pollution and over-extraction. Establish buffer zones around water sources and regulate industrial or agricultural activities near them. Set up solar-powered water kiosks in remote areas to provide filtered drinking water to communities. These can be operated and maintained through local committees. Regularly test water sources for contaminants and publish data to ensure accountability. Equip local health departments with tools and training for water quality monitoring. Conduct awareness campaigns on the importance of hygiene and safe water handling, including storing drinking water in clean containers and boiling water when necessary. Utilize innovative solutions such as solar-powered desalination systems, ultraviolet (UV) disinfection units, and IoT-enabled water quality sensors to address clean drinking water challenges effectively.

5.3. Recycling of Wastewater

The government of Baluchistan through proper installation of treatment plants can filter the sewage or wastewater which can then be used for irrigation, washing and cleaning. The treatment plants use seven basic steps for the cleaning and filtering of wastewater, which includes screening, aeration, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, chlorination and supplementary treatment.