Challenges and Opportunities for Waste-to-Energy Integration in Tamale's Waste Management System

1. Introduction

It is estimated that the municipal solid waste (MSW) generation rate in residential, commercial and institutional areas is expected to increase to 2.2 billion tons per year by 2025 worldwide (Sharma et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2022). MSW differ worldwide and are influenced by social, financial, cultural, psychological, educational and technological factors (Batista et al., 2021; Banks et al., 2021). Thus, the quantities and contents of MSW also differ according to the standard of living and the degree of urbanization (Han et al., 2020; Cheng et al., 2023).

The prevailing sanitation and integrated waste management plans in developing countries are often not thorough, impairing municipal waste management implementation processes (Serge Kubanza et al., 2020). The municipalities, for the most part, lack systematic information and specialized technical staff, which obliges them to handle and treat solid waste ineffectively (Fereja et al., 2022; Kadhila, 2019). In addition, there are challenges in setting clear goals, actions and procedures that ensure the objectives of waste management corresponds with municipals’ reality (Schalch et al., 2019). Also, there is a lack of organizational resources and competitiveness (Zuñiga-Collazos et al., 2019; Swab et al., 2019), and efficient performance measurement systems (Dahinine et al., 2024). Thus, the developing countries context demonstrates the presence of obstacles for integrated solid waste management (ISWM) (AlManssoor, 2020).

The scenario above reveals in principle that the waste management frameworks used today are not effective and sustainable (Di Vaio et al., 2023; Schroeder, 2019). This highlights the urgent need for alternative solutions (Seddon et al., 2020; Unwin et al., 2020). The growth of the WtE sector offers a promising alternative, but its development has faced significant challenges such as inadequate funds, insufficient expertise, the lack of favorable national policies and legislation, as well as weak enforcement of existing regulations (Asante et al., 2022; Martinsen et al., 2022). To overcome these barriers and solve numerous liabilities related to the environment, especially the mountains of MSW discarded daily, it is necessary to apply facilitating instruments for the social control of public policies, emphasizing strategic guidelines, institutional arrangements, legal aspects and financing mechanisms (Howlett, 2019). The issues of waste management in Ghana, as well as the Tamale Metropolis, are not different from the general perspectives drawn from studies in other developing countries (Asare et al., 2021; Asare et al., 2020). However, in the Tamale Metropolis, the informal sector is actively involved in solid waste recyclables trading and is operating in almost all the communities in the Metropolis (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2020; Adjei-Asomani, 2021; Volsuuri et al., 2022). Moreover, there is no operational solid waste-to-energy plant in place as such mixed wastes are indiscriminately dumped in open spaces, burnt or transported to the decommissioned landfill for disposal (Yousif, 2020; Roy et al., 2022). In addition. The delays in disbursement of funds to the Metropolitan Assemblies by the central government coupled with low user-fee turnovers in most cases makes it difficult for waste management authorities and contractors to invest in new facilities and treatment technologies to support waste resources recovery and energy production (Asare et al., 2020; Ghaffar et al., 2020). These and several other factors have made the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) incapable of rendering effective waste management services in the Metropolis (Orton, 2023; Majeed, 2019). As far as the researchers are aware, despite the significant generation of solid waste in Tamale and its potential for energy production, no WtE (Waste-to-Energy) plant has been implemented since the decommissioning of the only landfill site at Gbalahi, a suburb of Tamale (Gyabaah et al., 2023; Nyimakan et al., 2022). This lack of action leaves the city facing a growing solid waste crisis (Valavanidis, 2023; Sarfo-Mensah et al., 2019).

While existing literature explores Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies in Ghana, the focus has primarily been on documenting successful pilot trials or planned projects, with less attention given to integrating WtE into existing waste management systems. As a result, there is a gap in intellectual discourse on WtE in Ghana as a component of an integrated solid waste management system. Additionally, existing studies do not emphasize designing a framework that incorporates WtE into the existing waste management structure to overcome prevailing barriers, especially considering the low success rate of many WtE projects in developing countries (Knickmeyer, 2020). Moreover, although mentioned in the National Solid Waste Management Strategy of Ghana (NSWMS), the exploration of themes on energy recovery from waste is superficial both in practice and academic research (Omari, 2022). Consequently, the indiscriminate use of open dumps and burning as final disposal methods for MSW persists, leading to the depletion of natural resources and public health concerns (Abdul-kadri, 2022; Noor et al., 2020). There is also a potential mismatch between the solid waste management capacity of the Tamale Metropolitan area and the rapid increase in waste generation, as evidenced by the limitations of the current waste disposal system (Asare et al., 2021; Kosoe et al., 2021). Furthermore, considering the abundance of literature highlighting the role of innovative solutions such as waste-to-energy technologies in enhancing waste treatment and energy production simultaneously, conducting a study to inform the incorporation of waste-to-energy into the existing solid waste management system in the Tamale metropolis is imperative (Loizidou et al., 2021; SITE, 2019). Central to this study are two primary research questions: (1) What are the barriers hindering effective waste management and the adoption of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) in Tamale’s current solid waste management system? Additionally, the study aimed to address the question (2) What are the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for the realization of an improved solid waste management system encompassing WtE in the Tamale metropolis?

These questions serve as the guiding framework for the investigation, guiding exploration of diverse facets of waste management in the Tamale metropolis. Through rigorous data collection and analysis using focus group discussions and in-depth interviews, this study aims to provide actionable insights informing the development of effective waste management system incorporating viable waste-to-energy strategies. In addition to identifying barriers and critical success factors, this study aims to develop a novel framework offering a theoretical perspective and roadmap for the rollout of a Sustainable and Improved Solid Waste Management for Tamale. Integrating interdisciplinary perspectives and best practices, the framework seeks to address the challenges of solid waste management in the Tamale metropolis by incorporating WtE into the existing system. Finally, the insights gleaned from this study hold significant implications for policymakers and stakeholders in Tamale as they move forward with integrating WtE into the city’s waste management system.

2. Materials and Methods

Study Area

The study was conducted in the Tamale Metropolis, situated between latitude 9°16 and 9°34 North and longitudes 0°36 and 0°57 West. In 2017, the estimated population of the area was 485,000, with an annual growth rate of 3.5% (Asare et al., 2021). The elevation is approximately 180 meters above sea level, covering a total land area of 550 km². Notably, the Metropolis has an urban population of 67.1%, making it the only predominantly urban district in the region (Figure 1). The population density is around 319 persons per square kilometer for the Metropolis, significantly higher than the regional average density of 25.9 persons per square kilometer. Functioning as the capital and main commercial center for the Northern region of Ghana, the Metropolis grapples with waste management challenges due to rapid socio-economic growth (Abdul-kadri, 2022).

The current municipal solid waste (MSW) management in the Tamale Metropolis is characterized by several challenges. Indiscriminate disposal, insufficient waste collection and transportation, and open dumping are the predominant practices, with the majority of waste being openly dumped without any pre-treatment (Asare et al., 2021). Additionally, the waste management bodies in Tamale collect only 7.5 tonnes of MSW per day, leaving a backlog of 142.5 tonnes per day (Ghana Districts, 2014; Issahaku et al., 2014). There is a minimal provision of MSW disposal infrastructures and communal collection containers (Bowan et al., 2021). Furthermore, a major challenge to effective MSW disposal in Ghana and other developing countries is the non-segregation of wastes at the various generation sources and throughout the waste management chain (Adedara et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2022; Kassah, 2020). This is despite the significant stake of recyclable materials in the waste composition, which comprises both hazardous and non-hazardous waste.

As an illustration, In Tamale, mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) is often stored in single bins, improperly disposed of (e.g., burned, buried, or dumped in bushes), or collected through door-to-door services and communal containers before being openly dumped at an unregulated landfill site (Ramli et al., 2021; Asare et al., 2021). This system has detrimental environmental and public health consequences, including pollution of natural resources, ecological damage, and long-term health complications (Alabi et al., 2019; Chu, 2019; Akoto-Bamfo, 2020). While informal material recovery by scavengers and metal waste merchants partially mitigates the impact and provides livelihoods (Singh, 2021), there is no formal waste recovery or recycling system in place. As in many developing countries, informal recovery diverts some materials from the municipal waste stream (Khan et al., 2022; Cole et al., 2019). Therefore, implementing formal waste segregation, recovery, and recycling programs could significantly reduce the amount of MSW requiring disposal, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of current practices. Given these challenges, Tamale urgently needs to expand and invest in innovative waste management strategies, such as waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies.

Qualitative Survey

To understand the barriers and critical success factors associated with integrating waste-to-energy into MSWM in the Tamale metropolitan area, and to avoid bias, data was gathered from a variety of participants in the waste management sector using a variety of techniques including focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation, and site visits. This study represents the views of various stakeholders, including mainly MSWM service providers. Stakeholders were chosen according to recommendations from the literature (Batista et a., 2021; Rathnayake et al., 2022). All participants in the study were over 18 years of age. They were selected from various entities, including the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly’s Department of Waste and Sanitation, Zoomlion Ghana Ltd., the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), researchers, and other waste service providers. Participants comprised directors, official staff, and operational staff. The University for development studies Research Ethics Committee approved this study on the 21 November, 2022.

Fieldwork was undertaken between 1st January, 2024 and 5th February 2024. Firstly, the primary researcher met informally with the Manager of Zoomlion Gh. ltd, Manager of waste under the department of waste, environment and sanitation – local government and Director of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A formal letter and all relating documents were sent. Between January and February 2023, the primary researcher received acceptance letters from the aforementioned stakeholders, including Zoomlion Ghana Ltd. and the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, among others, indicating their willingness to participate in the study. The methodology involved conducting focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. The principal investigator also visited the Gbalahi landfill site in the study area to view and take photos of its state and condition.

Figure 2. Presents some evidence of pollution.

Figure 2. Presents some evidence of pollution.

Between January 2024 and February 2024, the principal investigator conducted 10 face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with managers, researchers, administrators and other staffer of organizations related to MSWM of Tamale (Table 1). Interviews took between 20 and 40 min per person. Times differed between stakeholders to accommodate technical and cultural backgrounds of interviewees. On deciding to participate, principal investigator contacted the potential interviewees and made an appointment. Nonprobability sampling (Sambo & Wetnwan, 2021) was used for participant selection, the technique deployed is explained here; The primary researcher sent an invitation to two potential participants (academia, industry, community etc.) to request their participation in the study, the research instruments were attached to the invite. Using a Snowball technique (Khosravani et al., 2023; Soltanian et al., 2022), potential participant was asked to recommend other participants in the related field who might be willing to participate. There were no more than fifteen participants in each focus group. Focus group sessions lasted for 60 to 90 min. In each focus group session, the research team consisted of the researcher, moderator, note taker, audio recorder and organizer. An audio recording of the focus group conversation was made for later review. During focus group discussions, participants were guided by the moderator who kept the discussion focused, ensured that everyone participated, and encouraged participants to explain their answers.

The audio files generated from the 10 face-to-face semi-structured interviews and two focus group discussions were transcribed by the researcher onto a word processor and later uploaded and analysed for thematic content using NVivo software (Allsop et al., 2022). Analysis was undertaken immediately to prevent bias or loss of nuance that might arise from translated terms or expressions. Salient quotes were captured for use in publication.

The analytical framework for this study was built upon factors or aspects identified in the literature on solid waste management, drawing from sources such as the US EPA (2002), Parikh et al. (1995), and a cross-national study by Wang et al. (2021) that specifically examined developing countries. Thematic aspects of the framework include technical, institutional, socio-political, and financial matters.

3. Results and Discussions

Content Analysis

The following analysis includes findings from in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The results present the most frequently cited issues.

Policy Perspectives

The absence of clear and consistent government policies regarding Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies presents a significant hurdle to their adoption in Tamale, Ghana. Both employees at Zoomlion Gh. Ltd. and officials from the Waste Department of the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) stress the importance of supportive regulations and policy coherence at both national and sub-national levels. These measures are vital for encouraging investment and facilitating the effective implementation of WtE projects. Without such policies, private sector involvement and investment in WtE initiatives are discouraged, and local authorities face difficulties navigating the regulatory landscape and accessing resources for project success. Consequently, the fragmented policy framework obstructs the sustainable integration of WtE technologies into Tamale’s waste management infrastructure, hindering progress towards environmental sustainability and energy security goals.

“There is a need for clear government policies supporting the adoption of WtE technologies. Without supportive regulations, it’s challenging to incentivize investment in these initiatives.” Zoomlion staff – ID Z4 (focus group)

“Policy coherence between national and local levels is crucial. Local authorities need guidance and support from the central government to effectively implement WtE projects.” Local government staff – ID LG2 (in-depth interview)

While the dominant narrative suggests a lack of effective policy, a minority of interviewees presented a different viewpoint. Three local government representatives (15%) in a focus group expressed the belief that existing policies are sufficient. For example,

“Policy is not the problem.” Local government staff – ID LG5 (focus group).

“We at Zoomlion Gh. Ltd. have recently commissioned a €20-million wastewater treatment plant at Gbalahi, a suburb of Tamale. This feat was achieved with funding from the Hungarian Government. Therefore, with the right funding and willpower from the Ghanaian government, we should be able to smoothly integrate WtE into the existing solid waste management system to address issues of solid waste ” Zoomlion Gh ltd staff - ID Z3 (in-depth interview)

Financial Implications

Amidst considerable financial hurdles linked to municipal solid waste management in the Tamale Metropolis, Ghana, both Zoomlion Staff and TaMA Waste Department Officials emphasize the urgent need for sufficient financing and thorough cost-effectiveness assessments to support the implementation and long-term viability of WtE initiatives. The paucity of accessible financial incentives and investment mechanisms hampers private sector engagement in the sector, while the absence of comprehensive economic feasibility studies poses risks to the financial sustainability of WtE projects. Therefore, without addressing these financial obstacles, the realization of WtE as an effective waste management solution in Tamale remains uncertain, undermining efforts towards environmental preservation and energy generation objectives.

“Securing adequate financing for WtE projects is a major challenge. Financial incentives and investment mechanisms are needed to attract private capital into the sector.” Zoomlion Gh ltd Staff -ID Z1 (in-depth interview)

“Waste-to-Energy (WtE) plants require a high initial investment, coupled with ongoing maintenance and operation costs. Economic viability studies are therefore crucial to assess their long-term financial sustainability and ensure value for money. Unlike the Gbalahi landfill site in Tamale, which fell short of expectations, WtE plants, when properly assessed and managed, can deliver a more sustainable waste management solution.” Local Government Staff- ID LG3 (Focus group)

“While WtE offers potential advantages, the high upfront costs and ongoing expenses raise concerns about affordability, especially considering Tamale’s limited resources. Exploring alternative, potentially less expensive waste management solutions that are more readily adaptable to our local context might be a more prudent approach in the short term.” - Community Representative - ID CR2 (Focus Group Discussion)

However, it’s important to acknowledge a minority (10%) viewpoint within the focus group discussions. Some participants expressed concerns that the social burden of WtE projects might outweigh the potential financial benefits.

“While WtE offers potential benefits, we shouldn’t rush into significant debt for these projects. A thorough cost analysis is crucial, but the long-term social implications on the community need careful consideration.” - Community Representative - ID CR8 (Focus group discussion)

Socio-Political Dynamics

Participants, comprising private waste service providers, waste researchers (experts), local assembly staff, Zoomlion Gh Ltd. staff, and others, emphasize the significance of social acceptance, public awareness campaigns, community engagement, political will, and stakeholder involvement in the success of WtE initiatives. Failure to address misconceptions, concerns, and secure public support through effective communication strategies may result in resistance from communities and obstacles in project implementation. Furthermore, the lack of political dedication and inclusive decision-making processes may impede the prioritization and advancement of sustainable waste management solutions, hindering progress towards environmental sustainability and energy generation objectives in Tamale.

“Political will and stakeholder engagement are key determinants of WtE success. Decision-makers must prioritize sustainable waste management solutions and involve relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process.” Waste Researcher -ID WR 1 (in-depth interview)

“The acceptance of WtE technologies by society is crucial. It requires public awareness initiatives and community engagement endeavors to tackle misunderstandings and apprehensions among local residents” Private Waste Service Provider – ID PWS 3 (in-depth interview)

Although a majority of participants (80%) agree with the need for stakeholder engagement and political will, not everyone (20%) agrees that the level of public engagement is necessary. Some participants expressed concerns that extensive public discussions could delay project implementation and potentially lead to misinformation campaigns.

“While public awareness is important, shouldn’t the focus be on technical expertise and ensuring the proper functioning of the plant? Extensive community engagement can be time-consuming and potentially delay progress.” – Community representative - ID CR10 (in-depth interview)

“There’s a fear that community concerns might be used to stall the project altogether. While some engagement is necessary, the final decisions should be left to the experts.” – Local Government Staff - ID LG4 (in-depth interview)

Additionally, a minority group (15%) represented by waste pickers voiced apprehension about the potential impact of WtE on their livelihoods in focus group discussions. They expressed concerns that WtE plants could reduce the amount of recyclable materials available for collection, impacting their income.

“We support sustainable waste management, but WtE shouldn’t come at the expense of our livelihoods. We need assurances that WtE won’t significantly reduce the amount of recyclable materials available for collection.” - Private Waste Service Provider – ID PWS 1 (Focus group discussion)

These quotes from minority viewpoints (15%) in the focus group discussion highlight contrasting perspectives on the importance of social engagement. They raise concerns about potential delays and the impact on waste pickers’ livelihoods, suggesting a need to balance public participation with project efficiency and social responsibility.

Institutional Framework

Majority of participants (70%) stress the importance of efficient collaboration between public and private entities and highlight the need to enhance institutional capacity for successful implementation of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) initiatives. Without strong partnerships between the public and private sectors, the effective operation and maintenance of WtE facilities may be compromised. Similarly, the absence of institutional capacity and trained personnel could hinder the planning, execution, and management of WtE projects. Therefore, addressing these institutional challenges is crucial to fully harnessing the potential of WtE as a sustainable waste management solution in Tamale.

“Building institutional capacity is crucial for successful WtE implementation. Training and skill development programs are necessary for waste management personnel.” Local Government Staff – ID LG 1 (focus group discussion)

“Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are not just essential, they offer the most promising path forward for WtE in Tamale. By leveraging the expertise of the private sector alongside public resources, we can ensure efficient operation and maintenance of WtE facilities, while mitigating financial risks for the government. PPPs can also foster innovation and technology transfer, leading to a more sustainable WtE solution for the city” Zoomlion Gh. Staff – ID Z2 (in-depth interview)

While many stakeholders emphasized collaboration, a researcher expressed reservations about private sector involvement in WtE projects.

“I understand the potential benefits of PPPs, but concerns exist about potential profit motives overriding environmental considerations. Local businesses should be given a fair chance to participate in WtE initiatives, ensuring transparency and community benefit.” – Waste researcher - ID WR1 (In-depth interview)

Additionally, the minority group (30%) voiced concerns about potential knowledge gaps within the local government when entering into PPPs with private waste management companies.

“Collaboration is crucial, but capacity building within the government sector is essential. We need to ensure local authorities have the necessary expertise to effectively negotiate and manage PPP agreements related to WtE projects.” – Environmental protection agency - ID EPA 2 (In-depth interview)

These quotes from the focus group discussion and in-depth interviews highlight contrasting perspectives on institutional collaboration. They raise concerns about potential profit motives and knowledge gaps within the government, suggesting a need for a balanced approach that emphasizes transparency, local participation, and capacity building.

Technical Considerations

In terms of the technical aspects involved in implementing waste-to-energy (WtE) projects in the Tamale Metropolis, Ghana, a significant majority emphasizes the importance of conducting feasibility assessments, embracing technological advancements, and promoting ongoing research and innovation to optimize WtE processes. Factors such as waste composition, available technology, and infrastructure significantly impact the feasibility and success of WtE initiatives. Without comprehensive feasibility studies and advancements in technology to improve efficiency and environmental sustainability, the execution of WtE projects may encounter technical obstacles and fail to realize their potential benefits. Addressing these technical considerations is vital to ensure the effective integration of WtE technologies into the waste management framework in Tamale, thereby contributing to sustainable development and resource utilization in the region.

“Thorough feasibility studies are crucial, but we should also consider adaptable technologies that can accommodate the evolving nature of our waste stream. Tamale’s waste composition may change over time, and we need WtE solutions that can adapt to maintain efficiency and environmental benefits.” - Environmental Protection Agency - ID EPA3 (in-depth interview)

“Technological advancements play a vital role in optimizing WtE processes. Continuous research and innovation are necessary to improve efficiency and environmental sustainability.” Waste researcher – ID WR 3 (in-depth interviews)

While the focus on technical considerations was widely shared, some dissenting voices emerged within the focus groups.

“The focus on high-tech solutions may not be the most practical approach for Tamale. Simpler, low-maintenance WtE technologies might be more suitable for our context, considering limited resources and technical expertise.” – Local Government staff – LG2 (Focus group discussion)

Additionally, an environmental expert (10%) expressed concerns about potential limitations of current WtE technologies.

“While advancements are promising, WtE still carries inherent environmental risks. We need to prioritize stricter emissions regulations and ongoing monitoring to ensure WtE projects in Tamale are truly sustainable and don’t create new environmental burdens.” - Environmental Protection Agency Representative - ID EPA 2 (In-depth interview)

These quotes from participants in the study highlight contrasting perspectives on the technical aspects of WtE implementation. They raise concerns about the suitability of complex technologies and the potential environmental impact, suggesting a need to consider simpler solutions and prioritize robust environmental safeguards.

Further Analysis

The integration of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies into Tamale ‘s existing waste management system encounters numerous challenges, as uncovered by the qualitative survey findings presented in this study. The results, demonstrate a consensus on major challenges and opportunities, as well as intriguing divergent perspectives.

Policy and Financial Hurdles

A consensus among stakeholders emphasizes the critical necessity for supportive government policies and clear regulations to incentivize investment in Waste-to-Energy (WtE) projects, a finding reflected in the literature (Lazaro et al., 2023; Lewis et al., 2021). Participants underscored the importance of conducting financial feasibility studies to ensure long-term economic viability, a sentiment echoed in the literature (Debnath et al., 2023; Dokter et al., 2021; Nyimakan, 2022). Similarly, Ali et al. (2021) reported similar findings, highlighting that like many cities in developing countries, the majority of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) budgets are allocated to collection and disposal rather than supporting innovative waste minimization efforts.

Moreover, a significant majority of stakeholders identify financial hurdles as a major barrier to implementing Waste-to-Energy (WtE) initiatives. Concerns primarily revolve around the substantial upfront costs, operational and maintenance expenses, and the lack of readily available financing mechanisms to support these projects. Additionally, limited access to financial incentives and investment options discourages private sector participation, while the absence of comprehensive economic feasibility studies raises doubts about long-term financial sustainability. This uncertainty surrounding the viability of WtE as a solution could potentially hinder progress towards environmental and energy goals in Tamale. Moving forward, it is imperative to explore WtE alternatives that are potentially less expensive for waste management, alongside conducting thorough examinations of WtE’s financial feasibility and social impact. This aligns with findings from the literature (Schroeder et al., 2021; Govindan & Hasanagic, 2018; Manamela, 2022), where finance emerges as one of the primary barriers to developing a Waste-to-Energy (WtE) system in developing nations.

Conversely, a minority viewpoint (23%) in this study suggests that existing policies might be sufficient. This underscores a potential gap in understanding and/or the need for more targeted policy interventions (Williams et al., 2023; Giest and Samuels, 2020; Pillai et al., 2023; Lafont, 2020; Norris, 2023).

Social and Political Considerations

The research underscores the importance of public awareness campaigns, community engagement, and stakeholder involvement for successful WtE implementation, Ogutu et al., (2021) and Han et al., (2021) found similar outcomes in their study on sustainable cities as options for improving solid waste management in Nairobi city. Notably, some concerns were raised about potential delays in WtE projects due to extensive public engagements, this is not different from the account in literature by (McLaren et al., 2023; Karmacharya, 2022; Volsuuri et al., 2022). Additionally, waste pickers expressed apprehension about the impact of WtE on their livelihoods a concern that resonates with earlier research by Hayoun, (2021) where he explored the link between waste governance structures and livelihood options for urban waste pickers. These contrasting viewpoints suggest a need for a balanced approach that prioritizes transparency, community education, and social impact assessments alongside project efficiency (Bahadorestani et al., 2020)

Institutional Collaboration and Capacity Building

Stakeholders in the study widely recognize the value of public-private partnerships (PPPs) for tapping into expertise and reducing financial risks, a sentiment supported by existing literature (Knickmeyer, D. 2020; Debela, 2021; Akomea-Frimpong, et al., 2022). However, concerns have arisen regarding the possibility of profit motives overshadowing environmental concerns, echoing findings in the literature (H et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2023; El Meouchy, 2020). Also, a critical challenge lies in the observed knowledge gaps and know-how within the local government and waste industry in Tamale. This is highlighted in the limited experience in both entering Public-Private Partnership (PPP) agreements and managing waste-to-energy plants. This situation underscores the need for robust PPP frameworks that prioritize transparency, local participation, and capacity building initiatives.

Technical Considerations and Innovation

The importance of conducting feasibility studies, embracing technological advancements, and promoting ongoing research for efficient and environmentally sustainable WtE processes were dominant under the technical and innovation theme, echoing findings in the literature (Burke et al., 2023; Adapa, 2018; Velasco-Herrejón et al., 2022). However, dissenting voices advocated for simpler, low-maintenance technologies suitable for Tamale’s context and emphasized the need for stricter environmental regulations to mitigate potential risks. Even though not so contrasting perspectives, the findings highlight the importance of considering both technical efficiency and environmental safeguards when selecting and implementing WtE technologies as echoed in the literature (Moss et al., 2021; Koene et al., 2019). Overall, the integration of WtE technologies in Tamale’s waste management system requires addressing policy perspectives, financial implications, socio-political dynamics, institutional framework, and technical considerations. By overcoming these challenges, Tamale can harness the potential of WtE technologies to achieve environmental sustainability, energy generation, and waste management objectives.

Barriers, Success Factors and Practical Implementation of WtE in the Existing System of Solid Waste Management in Tamale

Leveraging insights from focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and literature, this section outlines a framework for effective WtE integration within Tamale’s Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management system. While WtE holds promise, successful implementation hinges on careful consideration of three crucial elements: stakeholders, barriers, and success factors, as detailed in Figure 3.

The framework begins with a cluster of stakeholders, whose active participation is essential for the successful implementation of a Waste-to-Energy (WtE) project. The stakeholder group includes government agencies, particularly the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which play crucial roles in creating a supportive policy framework and ensuring environmental compliance. Private sector entities and waste management service providers, such as Zoomlion Ghana Ltd. and Sama Sama, contribute by leveraging their existing infrastructure and expertise for efficient waste collection, technology and delivery to proposed WtE facility. Community leaders, such as chiefs and assembly members, serve as vital bridges between a WtE project and residents, fostering public acceptance and facilitating smooth project execution. Finally, residents of Tamale, as waste generators, play crucial roles in waste segregation and responsible disposal practices. Engaging them through educational campaigns and promoting community ownership of the project are essential steps.

The key barriers hindering a successful Waste-to-Energy (WtE) implementation in Tamale include the following: Firstly, the high initial investment required for infrastructure development poses a significant hurdle. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) can play a crucial role in mitigating this challenge by sharing costs and leveraging private sector expertise. Secondly, the limited technical expertise in operating and maintaining WtE plants presents another barrier, which can be addressed through capacity-building programs. Public perception is also a critical barrier, with concerns about potential air and water pollution needing proactive addressing. Comprehensive environmental impact assessments and transparent communication strategies are essential to ensure public safety and garner community support. Furthermore, Tamale’s waste stream, characterized by its high organic content, may require pre-treatment processes before conversion to energy. Careful technology selection and feasibility studies are necessary to address this challenge by identifying WtE technologies suitable for the specific waste composition. Lastly, the lack of clear policies and regulations surrounding WtE projects is a major hurdle. Collaborative efforts between government agencies and industry stakeholders can help develop a regulatory framework to incentivize WtE development and ensure responsible operation.

Drawing insights from focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and existing literature, the following success factors are compiled for the effective implementation of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) in Tamale (See Figure 3). Firstly, conducting a comprehensive feasibility study is vital to assess the technical and economic viability of a WtE plant in the local context. Secondly, public awareness campaigns are necessary to educate residents about the benefits of WtE technology, including waste reduction, energy generation, and environmental conservation practices. Thirdly, public-private partnerships that leverage government resources, private sector expertise, and community participation are crucial for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the project. Additionally, selecting the most appropriate technology based on Tamale’s specific waste composition and energy needs is essential. Finally, capacity building through training programs for local personnel ensures the efficient operation and maintenance of the WtE plant.

Lastly, moving from planning to action requires a well-defined implementation plan. This can be found in the fourth cluster of Figure 3. Firstly, a comprehensive assessment will be carried out to detail Tamale’s waste generation, composition, energy potential, and current management practices. This data will inform the selection of the most suitable technology. Identifying a suitable site for the plant that minimizes environmental and social impacts is crucial. Stakeholder engagement throughout the process fosters trust, addresses concerns, and ensures community buy-in. Financing and investment strategies, as key implementation activities, will involve a combination of public-private partnerships, government grants, or private investments. A sustainable waste collection system is essential to ensure a consistent supply of waste to the WtE plant. Construction and operation of the plant require careful planning, adherence to safety standards, and comprehensive training for personnel. Lastly, monitoring and evaluation will be carried out to assess the plant’s performance, environmental impact, and make necessary adjustments for sustained success.

Development of an Integrated Sustainable Waste Management Framework That Integrates WtE System in Tamale

The block diagram below (Figure 4) illustrates an integrated waste management system encompassing WtE plants. This comprehensive waste management framework tailored for Tamale seamlessly integrates waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies, heralding a new era of sustainability and circularity in waste management practices.

At its core, the system addresses the multifaceted challenges posed by municipal solid waste (MSW) generation from both commercial and residential sources. The schematic diagram begins with the meticulous collection and transportation of MSW to a centralized sorting facility. Here, manual and automated sorting techniques are employed to segregate recyclable materials, effectively minimizing waste and maximizing resource recovery.

A pivotal aspect of the system lies in its treatment of mixed waste streams, a common challenge in the prevailing solid waste management system in Tamale. Following the sorting processes, non-recyclable materials are directed towards a specialized material recovery chamber for pre-processing of non-recyclables towards WtE plant utility.

Organic waste, a significant fraction of MSW is channeled to the anaerobic digestion plant, yielding biogas for energy production and compost for soil enrichment. This dual benefit not only reduces the carbon footprint but also fosters sustainable agricultural practices, promoting soil fertility and crop productivity.

Meanwhile, other non-recyclable materials from the material recovery chamber together with residual waste, unsuitable for conventional recycling or composting, finds their way to landfill plant equipped with gas capture and scrubber capabilities. Here, energy is harnessed through methan production for the generation of heat and electricity while mitigating environmental impacts. Notably, stringent measures are implemented to minimize emissions, ensuring that odour, NOx, and other pollutants are kept at minimal levels.

The energy and resources harvested through these processes form the cornerstone of a circular economy paradigm. Recycled materials are seamlessly reintegrated into the consumption and production cycle, reducing reliance on virgin resources and mitigating environmental degradation. Clean energy derived from biogas and landfill WtE processes meets both the WtE plants’ energy requirement and the city’s energy needs sustainably, fostering resilience and independence.

Furthermore, the production of compost enriches soil fertility, fostering sustainable agricultural practices and reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers. By championing a circular economy, the framework not only addresses the immediate challenges posed by MSW but also paves the way for long-term environmental sustainability and economic resilience in Tamale.

In essence, this waste management framework represents a paradigm shift towards holistic and sustainable practices, embodying the principles of circularity, resource efficiency, and environmental stewardship. By harnessing the potential of WtE technologies and embracing innovative solutions, Tamale is poised to lead the way towards a greener, cleaner, and more prosperous future.

Framework Validation

Considering that the best practice for managing solid waste involves an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system, and recognizing that the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA) is solely responsible for managing Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in Ghana, it was essential to involve staff from TaMA, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which is responsible for environmental regulation within the country and Zoomlion Ghana Limited which is a waste service provider with extensive expertise in the field of waste in Ghana in validating the developed framework. Their participation allowed for confirmation or challenge of the framework’s findings. By selecting representatives from waste management regulators, service providers, and government sector, the validation process aimed to assess the framework’s theoretical standpoint for the concept of MSW management integrated with waste-to-energy for adoption in Tamale against the practical considerations of these key stakeholders. Answers to the framework validation questions are presented in Table 2. A consensus emerged among participants regarding the framework’s logical structure, its effectiveness in addressing WtE and MSW management issues, its adequacy, and its feasibility.

This framework can assist waste management decision-makers to take the guesswork out of decisions for waste management planning in the metropolis, as the framework incorporates a better picture of how a waste management system encompassing WtE works and how that could improve the solid waste issues of Tamale. Thus, the application of this framework has the potential to increase the level of decision-makers’ awareness of the challenges of prevailing MSWM and possibly lead to the effective take-off of WtE technologies in Tamale.

By reducing reliance on landfills, generating renewable energy, and promoting responsible waste management practices, the framework can contribute to a cleaner and more sustainable future for Tamale. However, successful rollout requires collaboration and ongoing communication among all stakeholders to address concerns and ensure a smooth transition. The framework can also be adapted and serve as a valuable blueprint for other cities facing similar waste management challenges.

5. Conclusion

This comprehensive study delved into the imperative task of integrating Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technology within Tamale’s existing solid waste management (MSWM) system (Bediako, 2020). By meticulously examining potential barriers, delineating success factors, and formulating a pragmatic implementation plan, this research furnishes invaluable insights for guiding future endeavors and policy formulations. Using focus group discussions and in-depth interviews, the study unearthed five pivotal barriers impeding WtE integration in Tamale, including unclear policy frameworks, financial constraints, institutional inefficiencies, negative public perceptions, and a deficient waste segregation culture. To surmount these hurdles, it advocates for the development of comprehensive policies, exploring public-private partnerships (PPPs) to alleviate financial constraints, and augmenting institutional capacities. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of public awareness campaigns and fostering responsible waste disposal practices to assuage public concerns and garner community support.

Conversely, the research proposed key implementation strategies essential for the successful rollout of WtE technology in Tamale. These encompass conducting thorough feasibility studies, embarking on robust public awareness campaigns, fostering PPPs to leverage resources and expertise, selecting suitable WtE technology tailored to Tamale’s waste composition, and investing in capacity building through training programs. This research not only provided valuable insights but also guided the development of a novel framework for MSW management with viable WtE alternatives. If adopted by the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly, this framework has the potential to significantly accelerate progress towards achieving SDGs 7, 11, and 12 and can pave the way for tangible progress towards a cleaner, more sustainable future for Tamale and serve as a beacon for sustainable waste management practices in other developing regions.

Further, the insights gleaned from this study hold significant implications for policymakers and stakeholders in Tamale as they contemplate the integration of WtE into the city’s waste management system. By adeptly addressing the identified barriers and leveraging the outlined success factors, Tamale stands poised to realize substantial advancements towards a sustainable future.