Spatial Cognition and 3-Dimensional Vertical Urban Design Guidelines - Cognitive Measurement and Modelling for Human Centre Design

1. Introduction

When we envision the concept of a “city,” we often conjure an image dominated by tall buildings and a dense urban fabric. Over time, the modern urban landscape has gradually become filled with these towering skyscrapers, which serve as both a symbolic representation of urban expansion and power, as well as a reflection of how living experiences have adapted in contemporary cities. These high-rise “forests” serve as a testament to the dynamic nature of urban environments.

In our cities, tall buildings have become a central part of our daily lives, and the way we live around them has been changing over time. When we look at academic studies, most of the focus has been on the technical aspects of building tall, such as maximizing the ratio of gross area and plot ratio for construction [1,2,3]. Some studies have also looked at how tall buildings can be environmentally friendly or how the public spaces between buildings can be designed for livability. However, there has been a lack of research on how people actually experience living in these tall buildings. While decision makers and developers are generally interested in building more tall buildings to accommodate expanding urban populations, little attention has been given to studying the neural, cognitive consequences of living in them. The few studies that do exist on this topic are from the late 1990s and early 2000s [4,5,6,7,8,9,10], and only recently have scholars started to focus on vertical space in urban landscapes. Some scholars have criticized the focus on horizontal aspects in urban analysis and have called for more attention to be given to the “neglected verticality” of cities [11,12].

1.1. Sociological Perspective

The concept of ’vertical urbanism’ emerged from a geopolitical standpoint that em-phasized the territorial and military significance of these structures, as discussed by Elden (2012), Graham Hewitt (2013) and Weizman (2002) [13,14,15]. More recently, Harris (2011) and Graham (2016) have called for a shift towards a localized and people-centric approach to research on verticality. Whilst the research output related to the theme of ’vertical urbanism’ encompasses diverse orientations, there is only a limited exploration of high-density and high-rise living from a more humane and social perspective [16,17]. Harris (2015) argued for a thorough analysis of the vertical urban landscape by delving into ethnographic de-tails, such as the way residents experience, embody, and inhabit the three-dimensional city [8]. Similarly, Graham (2016) adopted a social geographical and cultural approach in his analysis, offering valuable insights into how the vertical landscape shapes the social realm differently and how it intersects with political issues, social power dynamics, and new forms of social stratification [17]. Jacobs (1961) emphasized the significance of social engagement and cultural landscape against the dominance of top-down political concerns in urban studies [18]. Going further, Lynch (1960)described and visually represented users’ memories, emotional attachments, and cognitive processes in urban design using five key elements [19].

These scholars share a common focus on the social aspect of urban development, particularly the experiences of residents, users, and the evolving social dynamics in vertical urban spaces. They highlight the significant influence of physical environments on people’s emotional states, encompassing both positive and negative aspects. Numerous studies have demonstrated that various urban elements, such as parks, gardens, rivers, and neigh-bourhood characteristics (including recreational resources, walkability, and green spaces), directly or indirectly impact the emotional well-being of urban populations. This influence is manifested through factors like physical activity, social interaction, and exposure to green spaces, all of which play a role in reducing stress, fostering positive emotions, and enabling relaxation for urban dwellers [20,21,22,23,24,25]. The notion of nature exposure, in particular, is often associated with Kaplan’s attention restoration theory, which suggests that being in nature alleviates the cognitive effort required for focused attention, leading to improved concentration and mental rejuvenation.

Then the key research questions can be raised as follows: What kind of physical and spatial building typologies change the ways that people engage and enhance positive emotions? and how do these spatial and physical characteristics shape people’s daily usage of public and quasi-public spaces?

1.2. High-density living environment with its emotional responses

Recent research has shown that high-density buildings and infrastructure in large cities are more likely to have a negative impact on people’s mood [26,27,28,29]. In this context, urban streets play a crucial role in influencing residents’ emotions. Streets are public spaces where people engage in various activities as part of their daily routines, such as social interactions, walking, and shopping [30,31,32].

The majority of studies examining the impact of streets on spatial cognition and emotions have primarily focused on the presence of vegetation. For example, research has shown that streets with a high concentration of trees and plants can help alleviate depressive symptoms and improve attention capacity [33,34]. Additionally, Jiang et al. (2000) found that an increase in tree canopies is associated with stress reduction, whereas understory vegetation has a negative impact on mental health [35]. These findings align with the perspectives of Norman (2011) and Gehl (2010), who suggest that spaces created by variations in terrain elevation evoke different emotions among different groups [36,37].

Furthermore, the findings from the emotional and spatial cognition study in the context of high-rise and high-density vertical urbanism are worth considering. It is notable that Kim et al. (2010) observed that urban environments elicit higher activation in the primary visual cortex due to the increased processing demands associated with complex visual scenes [38]. Additionally, the study suggests that volumetric urban forms, with their added density and spatial intricacy, may also impose greater processing demands on individuals.

In 1983, Ulrich introduced his ‘psycho-evolutionary’ theory, suggesting that people’s preference for certain places is influenced by specific environmental characteristics such as complexity, focal points, ground surface texture, depth, and mystery [39]. Ulrich et al. (1991, p. 206) further explain that while preference is an important factor, it is just one of several emotions (such as fear, interest, anger, and sadness) that play a significant role in the psychological aspects of stress and restoration [40]. According to this theory, a feeling of oppressiveness is primarily attributed to visual exposure to “artificial” elements or spaces such as tall buildings, artificial facades, paved roads, vehicles, and billboards, which Ulrich claims are inherently unfavourable and uncomfortable for humans. When streetscapes provide a greater sense of safety, people often experience a heightened feeling of freedom and relaxation, which can alleviate the sense of oppressiveness and mental stress [35,41].

While research on emotional and spatial cognition in the context of vertical and volumetric urbanism is limited, the tables below (Table 1) emphasise the important theories underlying the transformations and evolving concepts of urban cognition and the value of vertical urbanism. These theories are interconnected and supported by systematic and adaptive disciplines.

The urban environment plays a fundamental role in influencing various aspects of social activity, stratification, stress levels, synergistic activities, community engagement, and interactions. In particular, the built environment, including vertical and interior urban spaces, has a significant impact on urban cognition through factors such as sunlight, greenery, safety, noise, and the availability of diverse types and sizes of public spaces for recreation, relaxation, and gathering. It is important to note that the emotional and cognitive response to a place can influence people’s choices at various levels, encompassing both physical and emotional aspects. This highlights the relevance of creating responsive places that cater to the needs of individuals, not just in a physical sense but also in an emotional sense.

Urban design and cognition are not always closely integrated in research, indicating a disconnect between the two fields. The field of urban design is typically associated with related design disciplines including architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning, whilst cognition links with neuroscience, psychology, and human behaviour. There is a noticeable disconnect between these design and science disciplines. Urban designers may perceive morphology as a specialized activity focused on historical maps and obscure concepts such as ’morphogenetic’ processes. On the other hand, studies of emotional and spatial cognition may overlook the impact of chance, contingency, and context when considering urban form. As a result, urban design and spatial cognition often appear to be heading in different directions or working at odds with each other.

Given this context, the concept of vertical urbanism, or living in high-rise dwellings, emphasizes a sociological and anthropological understanding of this urban phenomenon. The term ‘vertical’ introduces a unique research direction that diverges from the existing body of literature, which primarily focuses on studying people’s lives along a horizontal axis. It seeks to investigate the vertical expansion of urban spaces, both upward and downward [14]. The notions of verticality, vertical urbanism, and volumetric urbanism encapsulate the idea of increased depth and height in urban environments. They encourage the exploration of new perspectives on everyday life in cities and shed light on the dimensions of segregation and division that come with this vertical way of living.4

1.3. Three Dimensional Interior Public Space

The concept of vertical and volumetric public realms requires elements that establish a connection between the buildings and their surroundings. These cues can either reinforce the existing paths, landmarks, edges, and blocks or stand out from them. Additionally, the vertical dependence, both at the ground level and in terms of elevator access, needs to be considered [42]. The integration of multi-level connections, akin to Alexander’s analogy (1964), fundamentally transforms a hierarchical tree structure into a semi-lattice structure. This introduces diverse and permeable urban experiences [43]. Archigram, for instance, highlighted the use of bi-layered connections, such as subways in New York City, to illustrate the limited adoption of multi-level connections and the importance of considering diagonal connections [44]. It is worth noting that most cities have, at most, a tri-layered connection system comprising below-ground, at-ground level, and above-ground elements, all of which remain relatively close to the ground in comparison to the height of buildings.

In order to validate these characteristics, the research sought to establish a connection between the built environment and its influence on mental and physical well-being, as well as social rela-tionships. This connection was identified as being crucial for the successful execution of different intended uses. In essence, the diverse range of spatial conditions and environments have an im-pact on the choices individuals can make, operating at various levels. This necessitates strategic experimentation that encompasses both horizontal and vertical dimensions:

• It affects where people can go, and where they cannot, both physical and visible in the conditions of permeability, accessibility and walkability, which impact on physical and mental health.
• It affects the range of uses available to people which can have a negative effect on social stratification, segregation, crime and fear of crime.
• It affects the degree to which people can use a given place for different purposes which impacts on place identity and a sense of belonging.
• It affects people’s choice of sensory experiences, which impacts physical and mental health with different conditions such as sunlight, greenery, safety, gathering.
• It affects the extent to which people can make different choices regarding movement, usage, amenities, and visible experiences which impact on community engagement and interaction, relaxation, joy, stress levels and synergistic activities.
• It affects the degree to which people feel being protected from harm within a given place, which impacts physical and mental health, conditions of safety, security, fear of crime and social stratification.

In order to recognise how the unique spatial conditions and environmental factors can con-tribute to the development of distinct characteristics and responsive environments, it is crucial to explore the spatial cognitive correlation to gain a comprehensive understanding and anticipate user behaviour patterns, particularly their emotional responses, in relation to the spatial layout and various morphological conditions present.

2. Research Methodology

Morphology is typically understood as the analytical study of the existing urban form or fabric. However, in colloquial terms, we might also refer to the ‘morphology’ of an area, using the term synonymously with form, incorporating key concepts such as types, fabric, and organisms.

To initiate the investigation, this study employs a measurable approach known as the volumetric study, to evaluate and examine how users perceive and comprehend emotions and spatial aspects within the context of vertical and volumetric building types. This analysis specifically focuses on a case study within the urban morphology of Hong Kong, delving into micro-scale considerations. The research aims to identify the evolving state of multiple ground conditions, which embody a unique perspective of the city through the vertical expansion of built spaces in both upward and downward directions [14].

Marshall (2012) and Gifford (2011) have emphasized the importance of integrating urban design and research with scientific methods to accurately measure human emotions, preferences, and responses within our built environment [45,46]. This integration can potentially lead to the development of improved urban spaces and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the operational aspects of urban design, including the arrangement and composition of structures and spatial organization.

To achieve this, the use of Electroencephalogram (EEG) equipment to measure and predict user responses and emotions in vertical and volumetric public spaces with varying levels of density. (Figure 1) By utilizing this approach, a deeper understanding of how individuals perceive and engage with different types of public areas can be gained. EEG and Electromyography (EMG) are techniques used to measure brain activity by monitoring changes in cerebral blood oxygenation. Cognitive neuroscientists have been utilizing these methods since the early 1990s to investigate the neurological underpinnings of cognition [47]. However, applying EEG and EMG to the study of urban design presents challenges. Cash et al. (2022a) highlight the need for specialized approaches in design research, as EEG and EMG require strict experimental control and entail constraints that may conflict with the inherent characteristics of design [48]. Currently, there is limited guidance available on how to effectively utilize EEG and EMG as research methods in the field of design. While there is ample literature on the methodology of MRI and EEG in neuroscience, it tends to be highly technical and not easily accessible for design researchers [49].

Although there is only a limited body of research in this area, EEG technology holds great potential for advancing our knowledge of mental and emotional reactions to designed environments. Building upon this, the aim of this study is to establish a scientific research methodology that applies cognitive measurement and modelling to urban forms and systems focused on the human experience. By doing so, the goal is to enhance the liveability and human-centeredness of spatial and social structures.

To conduct the research systematically, the researchers utilized VR goggles to analyse ‘3D urban interior spaces’. These spaces were presented on a screen and incorporated various key variables such as sunlight levels, the presence or absence of greenery, and the complexity of multi-layered interior public realms and open spaces. The goal was to assess participants’ perception and emotional connection to these stimuli. In the tests, electrical activity in the brain was measured using an EEG machine, which involved attaching small electrodes to the scalp to monitor brain activity.

There are no age, gender, or occupation restrictions for participants in this procedure, and all safety regulations have been followed to ensure there is no risk involved. In order to guarantee your safety throughout the entire process, participants will need to undergo a screening. The test itself may require around 10 minutes of preparation and 20 minutes of actual testing. Brain wave activity will be analysed from EEG data, which will be collected while participants experience different stimuli related to six different emotions.

3. Case study for the 3D simulation of vertical urban settings

A case study in Singapore focused on the micro-scale of vertical and volumetric built environments, specifically using a landmark building typology that reaches a height of 280 meters and incorporates mixed-use programs. The objective of the research was to model and test a unique series of spaces within the interior public realm. To achieve this, a model of the selected site was simulated, and 9 different variations were tested, applying a range of changes to the environments(Figure 2 and Figure 3).

Table 2. 9 variations and its indicators, (Source: Author, 2023).

Parameters for Urban Design Measurement Tools
Greenery
1. Select a scene at each level and incorporate a diverse range of greenery, following the specified percentages.
2.Generate each view, varying the specified percentages between 20% and 80%.
3. Compile images for the simulation video.
Accessibility
1. Select a scene at each level and illustrate access via elevator, escalators, and staircases, modelled to represent specified percentages ranging from 20% to 80%.
2. Render each view to showcase various degrees of accessibility.
3. Compile images for the simulation video.
Walkability
Set a wider view angle at a specific space on each level to showcase different walkability scenarios.
1. Reflect high walkability with open, empty interior spaces.
2. Include office functions to simulate 20% occupancy and its effect on walkability.
3. Increase occupancy to 40% to demonstrate the impact on walkable areas.
4. Showcase a fully occupied floor area at 80%, where only walkable space around the lift lobby is accessible.
Permeability
Set a broader view angle for one space at each level.
1. Arrange retail facilities on both sides of the corridor with a narrow space for circulation in between (20%).
2. Position retail facilities on both sides of the corridor with a wider walkway in between to facilitate smoother circulation (40%).
3. Incorporate retail facilities on both sides of the corridor and create a wider central void, allowing for sightlines, atrium views, and escalator views.
4. Introduce a larger opening and wider atrium view to enhance the overall permeability and open spatial experience.
Diversity
Diversity refers to the abundance of experiences within interior spaces.
1. Demonstrate distinct functions tailored for different age groups, such as spaces for children, adults, and the elderly.
2. Highlight a wide range of amenities, including exhibitions, play areas, skateboarding zones, art displays, and more.
Economic Catchment
Economic catchment areas comprise locations that drive consumption and spending. These areas encompass various establishments, such as restaurants, shops, event spaces, clinics, gyms, kids’ play areas, and more.
Safety
Rooftop analysis
1. Floor material
2. Handrail
Light
1. Illuminate each level differently to capture the changing ambiance from morning until night.
2. Render the same view 4 times, each with different light settings to emphasise varying moods and effects.
3. Compile the rendered images to create a comprehensive lighting variation simulation.
Cultural Identity/Aesthetics
Incorporate elements that reflect the local culture of the place, such as those evoking Singapore’s distinctive cultural traits that resonate with people. Ensure these cultural representations are thoughtfully integrated across multiple levels.

Table 2. 9 variations and its indicators, (Source: Author, 2023).

Parameters for Urban Design Measurement Tools
Greenery
1. Select a scene at each level and incorporate a diverse range of greenery, following the specified percentages.
2.Generate each view, varying the specified percentages between 20% and 80%.
3. Compile images for the simulation video.
Accessibility
1. Select a scene at each level and illustrate access via elevator, escalators, and staircases, modelled to represent specified percentages ranging from 20% to 80%.
2. Render each view to showcase various degrees of accessibility.
3. Compile images for the simulation video.
Walkability
Set a wider view angle at a specific space on each level to showcase different walkability scenarios.
1. Reflect high walkability with open, empty interior spaces.
2. Include office functions to simulate 20% occupancy and its effect on walkability.
3. Increase occupancy to 40% to demonstrate the impact on walkable areas.
4. Showcase a fully occupied floor area at 80%, where only walkable space around the lift lobby is accessible.
Permeability
Set a broader view angle for one space at each level.
1. Arrange retail facilities on both sides of the corridor with a narrow space for circulation in between (20%).
2. Position retail facilities on both sides of the corridor with a wider walkway in between to facilitate smoother circulation (40%).
3. Incorporate retail facilities on both sides of the corridor and create a wider central void, allowing for sightlines, atrium views, and escalator views.
4. Introduce a larger opening and wider atrium view to enhance the overall permeability and open spatial experience.
Diversity
Diversity refers to the abundance of experiences within interior spaces.
1. Demonstrate distinct functions tailored for different age groups, such as spaces for children, adults, and the elderly.
2. Highlight a wide range of amenities, including exhibitions, play areas, skateboarding zones, art displays, and more.
Economic Catchment
Economic catchment areas comprise locations that drive consumption and spending. These areas encompass various establishments, such as restaurants, shops, event spaces, clinics, gyms, kids’ play areas, and more.
Safety
Rooftop analysis
1. Floor material
2. Handrail
Light
1. Illuminate each level differently to capture the changing ambiance from morning until night.
2. Render the same view 4 times, each with different light settings to emphasise varying moods and effects.
3. Compile the rendered images to create a comprehensive lighting variation simulation.
Cultural Identity/Aesthetics
Incorporate elements that reflect the local culture of the place, such as those evoking Singapore’s distinctive cultural traits that resonate with people. Ensure these cultural representations are thoughtfully integrated across multiple levels.

CapitaSpring in Singapore stands at a height of 280 meters, spanning across 51 stories, and covering a total area of 93,000 square meters. This multifunctional building (Figure 2) includes a hotel, office, and retail spaces, with the research focusing on conducting experiments to understand the emotional and spatial perception of users within these specific spatial settings and environments.

The research involved creating a 3-dimensional simulation that focused on three distinct floors with public access and transitional areas. These floors include the Atrium, which serves as both a public and commercial space, the Middle level which comprises residential and office areas, and the Sky Garden, a private space accessible to the community. The aim was to assess emotional responses based on nine key parameters for urban design and four spatial characteristics.

4. Data Collection for Emotional Spatial Cognition

The research selected a total of 40 participants from different cultural backgrounds and age groups, ranging from 16 to 75 years old, including both residents and visitors to Hong Kong. The data collection was conducted in the School of Design, Urban Lab in Hong Kong Polytechnic University from January 2023 till July 2023. An initial pilot study of 10 participants was following by a larger study of 30 participants. EEG data was analysed using AI generators and chatGPT to discover a ‘correlation index’ for emotional responses to spatial conditions.

The EEG testing procedure was as follows:

• This study was carried out by a trained EEG technician within the research team and took approximately.
• 10 minutes of preparation and 20 minutes for testing.
• The participants were asked to relax in a reclining chair or lie on a bed.
• 16 electrodes were attached to the participants’ scalp with a special paste.
• The participants were asked to relax and be still.
• Once the recording begins, the participant were requested to remains still throughout the test. The participants were monitored to observe any movements that can cause an inaccurate reading, such as swallowing or blinking. The recording could be stopped periodically to let the participant rest or reposition him/herself.

5. Analysis

For EEG data collection the following classification process was followed (Figure 4):

The analysis commenced with data preprocessing in MATLAB, employing a range of algorithms designed for both simple and advanced electrophysiological data analysis. The initial step in data preprocessing involved the application of a Band-pass filter, filtering the raw data within a frequency range of 1Hz to 50Hz. this spectral domain covers 5 significant EEG frequency band: Delta (0-4Hz), Theta (4-7Hz), Alpha (7-13Hz), Beta (13-30Hz), and Gamma (30-50Hz). Subsequently, Independent Component Analysis (ICA) was applied to effectively remove artifacts such as eye blinks and muscle activity.

To extract features from the EEG data recorded from each channel, Time-Frequency Analysis was performed, enabling the examination of spectral content variations over time, which was assessed over a duration of 10 minutes and 10 seconds in this study. Additionally, Power Spectral Density (PSD) was employed to analyze the power distribution of EEG signals within each frequency band.

Observing how these spectral patterns evolve over time, in response to specific stimuli presented in the test material (in this case, a simulation video of CapitaSpring), in conjunction with insights from prior studies on EEG patterns associated with arousal-valence levels, facilitated the classification of the EEG data into 6 distinct emotions [50,51].

Lastly, an image dataset, labelled with emotional categories, was generated based on timestamp information in the EEG data. This image data, containing additional information regarding the floor and variations of relevant parameters, will serve as a valuable resource for further findings.

5.1. Arousal-Valence model and 6 emotions classification

In our study, we employed the well-established arousal-valence model originally proposed by Russell in 1979 [52]. This two-dimensional model of emotion is commonly utilized for categorizing emotions. Building upon this, we applied a modified version of Russell’s model (Figure 5), introducing three positive emotions—’Amazement,’ ’Joy,’ and ’Amusement’—and three negative emotions—’Unpleasantness,’ ’Frustration,’ and ’Gloom.’ This adapted model served as the framework for our emotional classification.

5.2. Mapping EEG features to Emotion Modelling

Researchers have long sought to establish the relationship between EEG patterns and arousal-valence levels. A study by Reuderink et al. in 2013 demonstrated a noteworthy connection regarding Valence Arousal parameters [53]. Their findings indicated a significant reduction in theta activity in the frontal lobe for states characterized by high valence. other research has shed light on the role of different brain regions in emotional elicitation. the frontal lobe has been implicated in the generation of surprise, while emotions like happiness and disgust have been associated with the temporal and occipital lobes respectively. Additionally, sadness has been linked to activity in the parietal lobe [54]. Based on the findings and insights in these existing studies, we accomplished the emotion classification by examining features extracted through time-frequency analysis and Power Spectral Density (PSD) analysis.

5.3. Image data with emotion label

To investigate the correlation between spatial elements and the 6 distinct emotions, we established image data subsequent to the classification of emotions. This image data enabled us to precisely associate emotional states with various spatial elements within the video, including parameters and floor information. To construct this dataset, we leveraged the emotion-labeled EEG data, which contained timestamp information representing the specific time points during the simulation video.

By extracting these timestamps from the EEG data, we created 6 individual timetables, each corresponding to one of the 6 emotions. These timetables accurately documented the exact moments when participants experienced emotional arousal during the EEG test. Utilizing these timetables, we curated the image data by capturing specific scenes from the video that corresponded to these emotional states.

5.4. 10 Participants EEG data analysis for Capital Spring(Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9)

6. Finding

The comprehensive analysis of the EEG data encompassed six distinct emotional responses, leading to the following discoveries:

Positive emotions

• Joy and Amusement

Table 3. Joy and Amusement emotional responses (Source: Author, 2023).

Joy and Amusement
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	60% - 80%
Middle Level	Permeability	Above 80%

Table 3. Joy and Amusement emotional responses (Source: Author, 2023).

Joy and Amusement
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	60% - 80%
Middle Level	Permeability	Above 80%

• Amazement and Surprise

Table 4. Amazement and Surprise emotional responses (Source: Author, 2023).

Amazement and Surprise
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	60% -80%
	Diversity	below 20%
		60% -80%
	Economic catchment	40% -60%
Middle-level	Lighting	80% above
	Diversity	60% -80%
	Lighting	40%-60%
	Culture	40%-60%
Sky Garden	Vertical accessibility	80% above
	Greenery	40%-60%
	Permeability	above 80%
	Economic catchment	20%-40%

Table 4. Amazement and Surprise emotional responses (Source: Author, 2023).

Amazement and Surprise
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	60% -80%
	Diversity	below 20%
		60% -80%
	Economic catchment	40% -60%
Middle-level	Lighting	80% above
	Diversity	60% -80%
	Lighting	40%-60%
	Culture	40%-60%
Sky Garden	Vertical accessibility	80% above
	Greenery	40%-60%
	Permeability	above 80%
	Economic catchment	20%-40%

Negative Emotions

• Feeling of Gloom

Table 5. The feeling of Gloom responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Gloom
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	below 20%
	Greenery	below 20%
	Lighting	below 20%
	Economic catchment	below 20%
Middle-level	Walkability	80% above
Sky Garden	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Lighting	20% below

Table 5. The feeling of Gloom responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Gloom
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	below 20%
	Greenery	below 20%
	Lighting	below 20%
	Economic catchment	below 20%
Middle-level	Walkability	80% above
Sky Garden	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Lighting	20% below

• Feeling of Frustration

Table 6. The feeling of frustration responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Frustration
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	20% below
Sky Garden	Culture	40%-60%

Table 6. The feeling of frustration responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Frustration
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Walkability	20% below
Sky Garden	Culture	40%-60%

• Unpleasant feeling

Table 7. The feeling of unpleasant responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Unpleaant
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Diversity	20% below
	Culture	60%-80%
Medium level	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Walkability	60%-80%
	Greenery	80% above
	Culture	60%-80%
Sky Garden	Economic catchment	80% above

Table 7. The feeling of unpleasant responses by participants (Source: Author, 2023).

Unpleaant
Level	Parameter	Variation
Atrium	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Diversity	20% below
	Culture	60%-80%
Medium level	Accessibility	60%-80%
	Walkability	60%-80%
	Greenery	80% above
	Culture	60%-80%
Sky Garden	Economic catchment	80% above

To summarise, the analysis of the EEG data revealed several positive emotions, including 20 instances of amazement, 3 instances of amusement, and 3 instances of joyfulness. Negative emotions were also identified, with 12 responses indicating an unpleasant feeling, 8 instances of gloom, and 2 instances of frustration (Figure 10). These negative emotions were associated with factors such as the high density of economic catchment, restricted visual permeability and legibility, and the experience of travelling through interior public spaces and realms with low light levels.

In detail, for the ‘amazement and surprise’, at the atrium (ground level) in relation to:

• The factors that contributed to creating a sense of amazement among people included a walk-ability range of 60% to 80%, well-defined boundaries of spaces, zoning areas with bustling activities, a comfortable depth of space with high ceilings, especially with a visibility of the sky above 3.3%. Additionally, having less than 36% wall coverage, fewer than 35% column numbers, a user density below 0.1%, and stable, comfortable flooring with a satisfaction level above 24.5% were all elements that contributed to this feeling of amazement.
• Regarding the aspect of ’Diversity’, when the variation in the boundary and scale of the space is kept below 20% alongside moderate depth, a high ceiling, 5% visibility of the sky, less than 55% of walls with permeability, over 1.5% greenery and trees, and less than 10% of walls with visible accessibility, the users experience a sense of amazement. Interestingly, when the variation in ’Diversity’ ranges from 60% to 80%, it also elicits a feeling of amazement among users. This response is further enhanced by maintaining less than 38% walls for visibility, a minimum of 2% chairs and seating areas, less than 6.1% user density, less than 1.1% column numbers within the spaces, and over 1.7% art paintings and decorations.
• On the ground level, the feeling of amazement is enhanced by various factors. These include an economic catchment with a variation ranging from 40% to 60%, a variable depth of the space with high ceilings, particularly allowing a maximum of 68% visibility through the walls. Additionally, a minimal presence of solid doors (less than 0.8%), a significant amount of greenery and trees (over 0.5%), a user density of no more than 5.4%, a minimum of 2.5% columns within the space, and a shopping counter occupancy of less than 5.5% all contribute to creating a sense of amazement in the atrium area.
• A feeling of amazement can be achieved by implementing specific parameters that contribute to the overall environment. These parameters include setting the lighting at a variation above 80%, incorporating variable depth of space with high ceilings, ensuring maximum 60% wall accessibility, incorporating more than 0.6% of trees and greenery, maintaining a minimum density of 9.6% for uses, and providing 13.5% accessible flooring area. These factors collectively contribute to creating a sense of amazement.

At the mid floor levels (living and working space)s the following emotional responses were found:

• Diversity with 60% to 80% variation, moderate busy space with wide and long depth, less than 38% of walls, minimum 2% of seating areas within the space, 19% of ceiling coverage, more than 4.4% of the visible skyline, less than 6.1% of people, and minimum 21% of safe accessible flooring area and colour create amazement at the mid-floor level of public space.
• With parameter of lighting between 40% to 60% of variation, moderate depth with wide space, especially less than 38% of walls within the accessible space, 19% ceiling coverage, minimum 1.2% seating area, less than 6.1% users’ density, and less than 1.1% column numbers within the space enhance amazement.
• With parameter of cultural aesthetic between 40% to 60% of variation, moderate depth with wide space, particularly, less than 36% walls for visible accessibility, 27% of ceiling coverage, minimum 1.2% seating area, less than 7.6% users’ density, 10% of art pieces and decoration create amazement at interior public spaces and realm at medium level of working and living vertical spaces.

Within the three levels of the upper Sky Garden (privately owned public space) the following emotional responses were found:

• Walkability at above 80%, moderate busy space with wide and long depth, especially, lessthan 20% of walls, 31% of ceiling coverage, more than 4.4% of the visible skyline, less than3.8% of people, and minimum 22.5% of flooring levels changes and colour create a feeling ofamazement at Sky garden, top floor level of public space.
• Greenery between 40% to 60% variation, narrow but level changes of space with depth, especially more than 5% of visible sky, less than 15% of walls for the visible linkage and accessibility, more than 31% of greenery, minimum 4.3% of floor col-our diversity and safety contribute to creating a sense of amazement.
• Vertical accessibility above 80% variation, with moderate density for the usage, especially a minimum of 15% of walls, more than 5% visible skyline, minimum 11% of greenery, and 10% ceiling coverage are important classifications in creating a sense of amazement at the uppermost floor sky garden.
• Permeability above 80% variation, with a minimum of 55% of walls for visible accessibility and walkability, less than 0.8% solid doors, a minimum of 5.3% of users’ density, more than 10% of openness for visible permeability.
• Economic catchment between 20% to 40% variation, moderate depth with less than 43% columns within space, and minimum 8.5% ceiling coverage, more than 16.8 % open skyline, and less than 6.7 % of users’ density create a sense of amazement at the uppermost floor sky garden.

7. Conclusion

The objective of this research is to establish an adaptable research approach and a set of recommendations for integrating cognitive measurement and modelling into human-centric urban design. By doing so, the aim is to enhance the livability and human-centered nature of spatial and social capital within urban environments.

To explore the micro-scale of an international setting, participants were engaged in a viewing experience of “3D urban interior spaces” through VR goggles. This experiment included variables such as different levels of sunlight, restricted window views, and the presence of multiple layers of interior public realm and open spaces, which were represented through different stimuli on a screen. The aim of this experiment was to evaluate participants’ perceptions and emotional connections in response to these simulated environments. In a broad sense, the findings derived from the EEG test, regarding the parameters and their variations, can be summarized as follows:

• Increased emotional and cognitive responses are observed when there is exterior accessibility from outside to inside space at ground level, compared to interior accessibility at ground level.
• Active thinking and cognition are associated with mid-level interior spaces that require naviga-tion using physical signage.
• The presence of walkability levels exceeding 60%, with an abundance of elevators and pathway options, lead to increased interest and spatial cognition.
• The uppermost floor with improved visibility and a heightened sense of safety triggers excite-ment and increased cognition.
• A greater amount and variety of greenery at higher floors enhances positive cognition.
• Spatial cognition is enhanced by an increased level of spatial permeability and legibility.
• A higher cognitive response and reaction are observed with an increased level of diversity.
• Changes in economic catchment generate excitement and heightened cognition.
• Spatial cognition is influenced by changes in natural light levels.
• Images that have a cultural reference and aesthetic evoke responses in both sensory processing and spatial cognition.

With these findings the study successfully assessed the interconnected layers of interior public realms and open spaces, and examines the emotional connections and responses associated with them. The evaluation, utilizing various parameters and their variations, demonstrated the potential for a generalized assessment tool to gauge users’ emotional responses to diverse spatial conditions. Moreover, the research established a neuroscientific framework that quantifies the influence of high-rise and volumetric urban environments on human cognition and overall experience.

These tools have equal applicability in practical scenarios for designers, planners, decision-makers, and academics. They can be utilised to aid in the creation of responsive and efficient urban environments that cater to the needs of inhabitants within high-density vertical and volumetric urbanism.

While this research has focused on specific aspects, such as interior public realms and public spaces, it did not encompass various scales within multi-level structures, such as lift lobbies, staircases, and corridors. However, future research endeavours will aim to address this gap and provide a comprehensive and systematic data set on emotional and spatial cognition related to vertical and volumetric urbanism.