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A peer-reviewed article of this preprint also exists.
This version is not peer-reviewed
Submitted:
05 September 2023
Posted:
07 September 2023
You are already at the latest version
Category of pollutant | Description | Components |
Pharmaceuticals | Medicinal compounds, including prescription and over-the-counter drugs, that enter the environment through human excretion and wastewater. | Antibiotics, Analgesics, Hormones, Antidepressants, Beta-Blockers, Diuretics, Antihypertensive, Fibrate, and Antiparasitic |
Pesticides | Chemical substances used to control pests in agriculture, which can leach into soil and water, impacting non-target organisms. | Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides, and Rodenticides |
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) | Organic compounds that resist degradation, such as certain pesticides and industrial chemicals, with potential long-range transport effects. | Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Dioxins, Furans, among others |
Personal Care Products | Chemicals found in cosmetics, shampoos, soaps, and perfumes that can be washed into water bodies and contribute to water pollution. | Fragrances, UV Filters, Preservatives, and Surfactants |
Heavy metals | Metallic elements like lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium that can accumulate in the environment and pose health risks to living organisms. | Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Nickle (Ni) among others |
Hydrocarbon Compounds | Organic compounds derived from petroleum, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are often associated with oil spills. | Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), and Benzene |
Biotoxins - Mycotoxins | Toxins produced by organisms like fungi (mycotoxins) and harmful algae, which can contaminate water and food sources, posing health risks. | Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins, and Fusarium Toxins |
Radionuclides and Electromagnetic radiations | Radioactive elements and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that can impact human health and the environment. | Uranium (U), Thorium (Th), 40-K and Radon (Rn), Radiofrequency (RF), Microwaves, Electromagnetic Fields, |
Other emerging pollutants of concern | Various emerging contaminants, like flame retardants and nanomaterials, whose impacts on the environment and health are under investigation. | Flame Retardants, Nanomaterials, and Emerging Contaminants |
Microplastics | Tiny plastic particles resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic waste, which can be ingested by organisms and enter the food chain. | Microplastic particles, and Microfibers, |
Disinfection byproducts | Chemical compounds formed when disinfectants like chlorine react with organic matter in water, potentially leading to health risks. | Trihalomethanes (THMs) |
Particulates | Tiny solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled by humans and animals. | PM2.5 (Fine Particulate Matter), PM10 (Coarse Particulate Matter), Gases, Sulphur dioxide (SO 2), Ozone (O3) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) |
Category of | Group/Class | Name | Uses | Sources | Concentrations | Place of study | References |
pollutant | detected | ||||||
Pharmaceuticals | Antibiotics | Sulfamethoxazole | Pharmaceutical | Industrial and municipal wastewater from Kampala city via Nakivubo channel, and Bugolobi Wastewater effluents | 1 - 5600 ngL-1 | Murchison Bay on L. Victoria and Bugolobi wastewater treatment plant, Kampala, Uganda | |
Trimethoprim | Pharmaceutical | 1300 – 22,600 ngL-1 | |||||
Sulfamethazine | Pharmaceutical | 2.4 - 50 ngL-1 | |||||
Sulfacetamide | Pharmaceutical | 0.8 - 13 ngL-1 | |||||
Tetracycline | Pharmaceutical | 3 - 70 ngL-1 | |||||
Erythromycin | Pharmaceutical | 10 - 66 ngL-1 | |||||
Carbamazepine | Pharmaceutical | 5 - 72 ngL-1 | |||||
Oxytetracyline | Pharmaceutical | 17 - 300 ngL-1 | |||||
Tetracyline | Pharmaceutical | 2.7 - 70 ngL-1 | |||||
Erythromycin | Pharmaceutical | 10 - 66 ngL-1 | (26,37,38) | ||||
Azithromycin | Pharmaceutical | 14 - 60 ngL-1 | |||||
Ciprofloxacin | Pharmaceutical | 2.0 - 41 ngL-1 | |||||
Levofloxacin | Pharmaceutical | 1.8 - 29 ngL-1 | |||||
Norfloxacin | Pharmaceutical | 1.9 - 26 ngL-1 | |||||
Enoxacin | Pharmaceutical | 5.9 - 51 ngL-1 | |||||
Ampicillin | Pharmaceutical | Wastewater effluents as well as shallow groundwater, leachates and run-offs | 1350 ngL-1 | Bwaise | (38,65,66) | ||
Chlortetracycline | Pharmaceutical | 394 ngL-1 | Wobulenzi city suburbs, Kampala, Uganda | ||||
Ciprofloxacin | Pharmaceutical | 340 ngL-1 | |||||
Enrofloxacin | Pharmaceutical | 17 ngL-1 | |||||
Metacycline | Pharmaceutical | 17 ngL-1 | |||||
Nalidixic acid | Pharmaceutical | 2,340 ngL-1 | |||||
Oxytetracycline | Pharmaceutical | 17 ngL-1 | |||||
Penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) | Pharmaceutical | 800 ngL-1 | |||||
Sulfathiazole | Pharmaceutical | 140 ngL-1 | |||||
Tetracycline | Pharmaceutical | 47.3 ngL-1 | |||||
Analgesic/Anti-inflammatory | Ibuprofen | Pharmaceutical | Industrial and municipal runoffs and Wastewater effluents | 5.9 -780 ngL-1 | Nakivubo sewer channel, Murchison Bay on L. Victoria and Bugolobi wastewater treatment plant, Uganda | (26,37) | |
Diclofenac | Pharmaceutical | 100 – 500 ngL-1 | |||||
Acetaminophen | Pharmaceutical | 1.6 – 27 ng/L | |||||
Antiepileptics/antidepressant | Carbamazepine | Pharmaceutical | 200 – 1300 ngL-1 | ||||
346.496 µgL-1 CEC | |||||||
Beta-Blockers | Atenolol | Pharmaceutical | 24-380 ngL-1 | ||||
Metoprolol | Pharmaceutical | 0.4-21 ngL-1 | |||||
Diuretics | Furosemide | Pharmaceutical | 160 – 1300 ngL-1 | ||||
Hydrochlorothiazide | Pharmaceutical | 230 – 1350 ngL-1 | |||||
Antihypertensive | Losartan | Pharmaceutical | 100 – 160 ngL-1 | ||||
Fibrate | Gemfibrozil | Pharmaceutical | 190 – 800 ngL-1 | ||||
Antiparasitic | Pyrimethamine | Pharmaceutical | 8.4 – 14.0 ngL-1 | ||||
Pesticides | Organonitrogen | Endosulfan sulfate | Herbicide, insecticides and fungicides | Air, sediment and surface water samples | 0.82–5.62 µg kg-1 d.w. | 4 bays of the Uganda side of L. Victoria, Uganda | (19,27,70,30,35,41,46,49,67–69) |
Aldrin | Herbicide, insecticide | 0.22 – 15.96 µg kg-1 d.w. | |||||
Dieldrin | Soil insecticide and for control | 0.94 – 7.18 µg kg-1 d.w. | |||||
of mosquitoes. | |||||||
Chlordane | Insecticide | 3.82 – 35.6 pgm-3 | |||||
Hexachlorocyclohexanes | Insecticide | 3.72 – 81.8 pgm--3 | |||||
Heptachlor | Insecticide | 0.81 μgkg-1 d.w. | |||||
Heptachlor epoxide | Insecticide. Used for fire ant | 3.19 μgkg-1 d.w. | |||||
control in power transformers | |||||||
Organochlorine | p, p′-DDE | Insecticides | 0.11 – 3.59 μgkg-1 d.w. | ||||
p, p′-DDD | 0.38 – 4.02 μgkg-1 d.w. | ||||||
p, p′-DDT | 0.04 – 1.46 μgkg-1 d.w. | ||||||
o, p′-DDE | 0.07 – 2.72 μgkg-1 d.w. | ||||||
o, p′-DDT | 0.01 – 1.63 μgkg-1 d.w. | ||||||
Total Endosulfan | Isomer of Endosulfan. | 12.3 – 282 pg m−3 | Air and water samples of Lake Victoria Northern shore water shed, areas of Kakira and Entebbe, Uganda | (27,41,46,65,67,68,71–74) | |||
Insecticide and acaricide | |||||||
Total DDT related compounds | Insecticide used in agriculture | 22.8 – 130 pgm--3 | |||||
Dieldrin | Soil insecticide and for control of mosquitoes | 0.0148 ± 0.0023 μgkg-1 d.w. | |||||
Endosulphan sulphate | Insecticide and acaricide | 0.82 – 5.62 μgkg-1 d.w. | |||||
Lindane | Insecticide | 0.74 ± 0.11 and 0.87 ± 0.09 μg kg−1 | Napoleon Gulf on L. Victoria, Uganda | ||||
(MRL = 0.5 mg kg−1) | |||||||
Aldrin | 1.17 and 1.79 μg kg−1 (MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1) | ||||||
α-Endosulfan | 7.59 and 6.00 μg kg−1 | ||||||
(MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1) | (30,46,68,75) | ||||||
Dieldrin | 2.22 and 1.88 μg kg−1 (MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1) | ||||||
Organochlorine | p, p′-1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl) ethylene (p, p′-DDE) | Insecticide | Air, Sediments, Surface waters samples as well as Fish species | 6.10 and 3.44 μg kg−1 | Napoleon Gulf on L. Victoria, Uganda | (27,41,73) | |
p, p′-1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(4-chlorophenyl) ethane (p, p′-DDT) | 7.34 and 4.30 μg kg−1 | ||||||
(MRL = 0.1 mg kg−1) | |||||||
∑DDTs | 503.6 μg kg−1 d.w. | Abandoned pesticide store in Masindi district in western Uganda | -74 | ||||
∑OCPs | 14.4 μg kg−1 d.w. | ||||||
Lindane | 11.4 μg kg−1 d.w. | ||||||
Endosulfans | 1.55 μg kg−1 d.w. | ||||||
Chlorpyrifos | 93.5 ng/m3 | Air samples from Kakira and Entebbe, northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda | (67,74,76) | ||||
Chlorthalonil | Fungicide | < 0.10–24.0 pg m− 3 | |||||
Metribuzin | Herbicides | < 0.02– 0.53 ng m−3 | |||||
Trifluralin | 0.02–0.32 pg m− 3 | ||||||
Malathion | Insecticide | < 0.08–193 pg m− 3 | |||||
p, p’DDE | 125 mg/kg | Kampala and Iganga districts in Uganda | (40,77) | ||||
Dieldrin | 123 mg/kg | ||||||
p, p’DDD | 24 mg/kg | ||||||
p, p, DDT | 13 mg/kg | ||||||
o, p’DDT | 23 mg/kg | ||||||
α-HCH | 54 mg/kg | ||||||
β-HCH | 10 mg/kg | ||||||
Lindane | 7 mg/kg | ||||||
Carbofuran | 83.3 pg/m3 | ||||||
Kakira and Entebbe, northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda | |||||||
-68 | |||||||
Total Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (ΣDDTs) | 22.8 – 130 pg/m3 | ||||||
Total hexachlorocyclohexanes (ΣHCHs) | 3.72 – 81.8 pg/m3 | ||||||
Carbamates | Total Endosulfan (ΣEndo) | 12.3 – 282 pg/m3 | |||||
Persistent organic pollutants (POP) | polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) | Are used as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment | Sediment samples | 9.84 pg g−1 dry weight | Napoleon Gulf and Thurston Bay on northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda | -42 | |
Dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) | 136 pg g−1 dw | (36,42,57,78) | |||||
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) | 44.1 pg g−1 dw | (36,57,78) | |||||
Flame Retardants (brominated flame retardants (BFRs)) | 0.07–5.53 pg Toxic Equivalent Factors (TEQ) g−1 dw | ||||||
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) | 0.07 - 5.61 pg g−1 dw | (36,57,78) | |||||
0.01–0.23 pg TEQ g−1 dw | |||||||
Organochlorine pesticides | Pymetrozine | Pesticide | Edible Insects | 0.02 pg g−1 dw | Ugandan districts | -35 | |
Methabenzthiazuron | 0.08 pg g−1 dw | ||||||
Metazachlor | 1.4 ± 0.03 pg g−1 dw | ||||||
Fenimorph | 0.04 ± 0.03 pg g−1 dw | ||||||
Fludioxonil | Fungicide | 0.29 pg g−1 dw | |||||
Metalaxyl | 0.01± 0.01 pg g−1 dw | ||||||
Organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) | Tricresyl phosphate | Used as a plasticizer | Waters, sediments and soil samples | 25 – 8100 ngL-1 | Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda | (27,39,40,46,67,69,72–74) | |
Tris-(2-chloroethyl) phosphate | Widely used as a plasticizer, fire retardant and solvent | 24 – 6500 ngL-1 | |||||
Triphenyl phosphate | 54 – 4300 ngL-1 | ||||||
Tris-(2-ethylexyl) phosphate | 4300 ngL-1 | ||||||
2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate | 7.7 - 730 ngL-1 | ||||||
Tricresyl phosphate | 8100 ngL-1 | ||||||
Tris-(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate | Used as plasticizers and antifoam agents | 25 - 600 ngL-1 | |||||
Tributyl phosphate | 29 ngL-1 | ||||||
Triethyl phosphate | 9.6 - 500 ngL-1 | ||||||
Phthalate ester plasticizers (PEP) | Dibutyl phthalate | Are added to polymers to ease processing and to | Waters, sediments and soil samples | 350 – 16000 ngL-1 | Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda | -39 | |
Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | enhance flexibility and toughness of the final product | 210 – 23000 ngL-1 | |||||
Dimethyl phthalate | 6.8 – 400 ngL-1 | ||||||
Diethyl phthalate | 38 – 1100 ngL-1 | ||||||
Dibutyl phthalate | 350 - 16000 ngL-1 | ||||||
N-butyl benzenesulfonamide | 7.5 200 ngL-1 | ||||||
Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate | 12 - 6100 ngL-1 | ||||||
Personal Care Products | Antimicrobial | Triclosan | Antibiotic in soaps, toothpaste, detergents | Industrial wastewater effluents from highly industrialized localities of the two bays | 89 – 1400 ngL-1 | Napoleon gulf, Murchison, Waiya, Entebbe, and Thurston bays, Uganda | -39 |
Organic sunscreens | Benzophenone | Protect the products from UV light | 36 – 1300 ngL-1 | ||||
4-methylbenzylidine camphor | Organic UV filters | 21 – 1500 ngL-1 | |||||
Phenolic antioxidants | Butylated hydroxytoluene | Used as an antioxidant in cosmetic product formulations | 14 – 750 ngL-1 | ||||
Synthetic musk fragrances | Musk ketone | Used in cleaning and washing agents, surface treatments, and lubricants and additives | 7.3 - 460 ngL-1 | ||||
Preservatives | Chlorophene | Used to be applied as a preservative and disinfectant in personal care products | 21 - 310 ngL-1 | ||||
Masking agent | Acetophenone | Covers the unpleasant scents of other ingredients | 2.2 – 100 ngL-1 | ||||
3-methylindole | I used as a flavoring ingredient | 1.8 - 130 ngL-1 | |||||
Insect repellents | N, N-diethyltoluamide | Is an active ingredient in many insect repellent products | 3.9 - 98 ngL-1 | ||||
Preservatives | 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy anisole | Is used as an antioxidant and preservative | 7.3 – 100 ngL-1 | ||||
Antioxidant | 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol | Is used as stabilizers, free-radical scavengers and antioxidants | 66 ngL-1 | ||||
Heavy metals | Post-transition metals | Pb | Battery assembling, in gasoline | Water, sediments, milk and beef products samples | 79 - 138.18 mg/kg | Nakivubo channelized stream sediments and in Kampala markets, Uganda | (28,30,85–90,43,44,79–84) |
Transition metals | Cd | Find applications in batteries, alloys, coatings (electroplating), solar cells, plastic stabilizers, and pigments | Water, sediments, Road side soils, surface films and selected vegetable weeds | 0.84 - 1.04 mg/kg | |||
Transition metals | Cu | Find applications in electrical wiring, roofing, plumbing, and industrial machinery. | Sludge at NWSC, Milk, beef, soil, crops, borehole water, Industrial effluents, Herbal medicine, rain water, sediments, roasted peanuts, water sediments, dumpsites | 28.84 - 38.01 mg/kg | Nakivubo stream, Southwestern Uganda, Kilembe copper mines, Jinja steel rollings and Osukuru phosphate mines, Kampala markets, L. Victoria | (28,29,91–98,32,43,79,80,84,88–90) | |
Trace element | Zn | Smelting and galvanization | Road side soils, surface films and selected vegetable weeds | 177.89 - 442.40 mg/kg | Kampala city roads, Uganda | (43,79,85,97,98) | |
Transition metals | Mn | Welding, making structural alloys | Cereal crops, | 363.47 mg/kg | Kampala city, Uganda | (29,44,49,70) | |
Transition metal | Fe | Making alloy steels | Open wells, soils, borehole waters, stream sediments and crops. | 30085.33 - 5835.00 mg/kg | Nakivubo stream, Kilembe copper mines, southwestern Uganda areas | (29,81,82,91,95,99) | |
Transition metal | Ni | Use in alloying such as in armour plating | Soils, surface water, herbal medicines and cereals | 2.2 – 9.40 ppm | Jinja steel rolling mills, areas of southwestern Uganda and Kampala markets | (89,94,95) | |
Metalloid | As | Used as an allowing agent as well as in making of glass, pigments, textiles and both metal and wood adhesives | Up and Downstream waters, soil, surface water and plants | 0.5 – 4.6 ppm | Roofings rolling mills, steel and tube industries in Nakawa Industrial area and in areas of Kilembe copper mines, Uganda | (43,81,82,89) | |
Transition metals | Co | Making alloys, find applications in magnets and is also used as a catalyst in petroleum industries. | Surface waters, vegetables and in herbal medicines | 0.233 g/mL | R. Nyamwamba areas in kasese, southwestern Uganda parts and soroti district | (29,88,94) | |
Transition metals | Hg | Find applications in gold extraction and also used in manometers | Soils, Cocoyams, roasted peanuts and in stream waters | 0.05 ± 0.01 ppm | Kampala, Wakiso and Busia districts, Uganda | (30,43,99) | |
Transition metals | Cr | Applied in manufacture of steel as well as hardening steel | Raw bovine milk, herbal medicines, soils, grains and stream waters. | 156.9 ppm | Steel and Tube industrial area, Roofings rolling mills area, Kampala and Soroti districts, Uganda | -28,100 | |
Transition metal | Fe | Making alloy steels | Stream sediments, soils, surface waters and dumpsites, cereal crops, rain water. | 64.05 – 147.40 mg/Kg | Industrial effluents in Kampala and soroti districts, Nakivubo stream, and Osukuru phosphate mines areas, Uganda | (81,82,89) | |
Hydrocarbon Compounds | High and Low molecular Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | Acenaphthene | Used to prepare naphthalene | Leachates and Ground water samples | 1,020 ng/L | Bwaise and Wobulenzi towns in Kampala district, Uganda | (63,65,101) |
dicarboxylic anhydride, | |||||||
which is a precursor to dyes | |||||||
Acenaphthylene | Used to make electrically | 92 ng/L | |||||
conductive polymers | |||||||
Anthracene | Used in the manufacture of red dye | 340 ng/L | |||||
alizarin, wood preservation, | |||||||
insecticide, coating of | |||||||
material | |||||||
Benzo[a]pyrene | No known uses | 405 ng/L | |||||
1.1 ng/L | |||||||
Benzo[k]fluoranthene | Majorly used for research purposes | 180 ng/L | |||||
226 ng/L | |||||||
Chrysene | Used to make some dyes. | 102 ng/L | |||||
224 ng/L | |||||||
Fluoranthene | No found uses but is produced | 550 ng/L | |||||
by some plants. | 580 ng/L | ||||||
Fluorene | Used to make dyes, plastics | 480 ng/L | |||||
and pesticides. | 240 ng/L | ||||||
Naphthalene | Industrial solvent | 570 ng/L | |||||
258 ng/L | |||||||
Phenanthrene | Used to make dyes, plastics | 220 ng/L | |||||
and pesticides, explosives and | 1,050 ng/L | ||||||
drugs | |||||||
Pyrene | Used to produce dyes, plastics | 40 - 687 ng/L | |||||
and pesticides. | |||||||
BTEX compounds | Benzene | Industrial solvent | 86.7 ng/L | ||||
Ethylbenzene | Industrial solvent | 5 - 960 ng/L | |||||
Xylene | Industrial solvent | 410 ng/L | |||||
Low and High Molecular Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | Naphthalene | Naphthalene | Sediments and fish species | 184 - 239 ng g-1 dw | The White Nile environment near melut oil fields, South Sudan, Uganda and Napoleon Gulf and Murchison Bays | ######## | |
Acenaphthylene | Used to make electrically | 16 - 20.5 ng g-1 dw | |||||
conductive polymers | |||||||
Fluorene | Used to make dyes, plastics | 148 - 156 ng g-1 dw | |||||
and pesticides. | |||||||
Anthracene | Used in the artificial | 79.3- 112 ng g-1 dw | |||||
manufacture of red dye | |||||||
alizarin, wood preservation, | |||||||
insecticide, coating of | |||||||
material | |||||||
Fluoranthene | No found uses and is said to be produced | 2.46 - 8.73 ng g-1 dw | |||||
by some plants. | |||||||
Pyrene | Used to produce dyes, plastics | 2.09 - 5.7 ng g-1 dw | |||||
and pesticides. | |||||||
Benzo[a]anthracene | Can be found in coal tar, roasted coffee, smoked foods, and automobile exhaust and is used in research laboratories | 0.5 – 1.3 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Chrysene | Used to make some dyes. | 8.4 - 25 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Benzo[b]fluoranthene | Research purpose | 2.7 – 9.3 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Benzo[k]fluoranthene | Research purpose | 0.6 – 6.5 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Benzo[a]pyrene | No known use | 0.02 – 1.06 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Dibenzo [a, h] anthracene | Is used only for research purposes to induce tumorigenesis | 1.0 – 1.9 ng g-1 dw | |||||
Chlorinated aromatic chemicals | Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) | Applicable in chemicals, notably herbicides | Surface sediments | 44.1 pg g-1 dry weight (d.w) | Napoleon Gulf and Thurston Bay on the northern shore of L. Victoria, Uganda | ||
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) | 5.61 pg g-1 dry weight (d.w) | ||||||
Dioxin-like Polychlorinated bisphenyls (di-PCBs) | 136 pg g-1 d. w | ||||||
Biotoxins - Mycotoxins | Aflatoxins | Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) | Exert inhibitory effects on biological processes including DNA synthesis, DNA-dependent RNA synthesis, DNA repair, and protein synthesis | Sorghum | 16.0 ± 3.6 µg/kg | Kitgum district | (103–106) |
Maize | 1.9 ± 0.9 µg/kg | Kitgum and | (97,106–109) | ||||
Millet | 2.9 ± 1.2 µg/kg | Lamwo districts, Uganda | |||||
4.3 ±1.5 µg/kg | |||||||
Sesame | 2.4 ± 1.1 µg/kg | ||||||
3.5 ± 2.9 µg/kg | |||||||
Sorghum | 16.0 ± 3.6 µg/kg | ||||||
Fish feed (Farms) | 148 ± 46.9 µg/kg | Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda | |||||
Fish feed (Factories) | 110 ± 39.9 μg/kg | Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda | -103,104 | ||||
Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2) | Peanuts | 0 - 540 μg/kg | Mubende, Uganda | -103,104 | |||
Peanuts | 10.5 ± 6.15 μg/kg | Iganga markets, Uganda | |||||
Peanuts | 7.3 ± 4.98 μg/kg | Mayuge markets, Uganda | |||||
Peanut | 11.5 ± 0.43 μg/kg | Southwestern Uganda markets | -106,110 | ||||
Sorghum (flour and porridge) | 15.2 ± 0.20 μg/kg | Southwestern Uganda markets | -88,104 | ||||
Millet (flour and porridge) | 14.0 ± 1.22 μg/kg | Southwestern Uganda markets | -106 | ||||
Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) | Cassava flour | 16.0 ± 1.66 μg/kg | Southwestern Uganda | -104,106 | |||
Eshabwe (porridge) sauce | 18.6 ± 2.40 (μg/kg) | Southwestern Uganda | -106 | ||||
Peanut paste | 0 – 540 μg/kg | Kampala markets, Uganda | -97,103 | ||||
Freshly harvested maize (Zea mays L.) | 9.6 ± 4.20 μg/kg | Mubende markets, Uganda | -106,110 | ||||
10.1 ± 3.10 μg/kg | Ibanda markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
9.1 ± 4.35 μg/kg | Jinja markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
11.0 ± 3.01 μg/kg | Hoima markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) | 10.6 ± 1.63 μg/kg | Mayuge markets, Uganda | ######## | ||||
6.5 ± 0.60 μg/kg | Buikwe markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
3.8 ± 1.30 μg/kg | Mpigi markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
7.2 ± 1.99 μg/kg | Masindi markets, Uganda | ######## | |||||
8.5 ± 2.56 μg/kg | Bugiri markets, Uganda | -110 | |||||
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) | Aflatoxin M1 is usually present in the fermentation broth of Aspergillus parasiticus and is a metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals | Peanuts | 60.3 ± 27.99 μg/kg | Kalerwe markets, Uganda | -97,106 | ||
40.5 ± 12.82 μg/kg | Bukoto markets, Uganda | ||||||
10.3 ± 3.54 μg/kg | Nakawa markets, Uganda | -97,111 | |||||
143.1 μg/kg | Owino markets, Uganda | -97 | |||||
5.8 ± 12.3 μg/kg | Bugiri markets, Uganda | -111 | |||||
Maize | 2.9 ± 6 μg/kg | Bulambuli markets, Uganda | -111 | ||||
0.7 ± 0.3 μg/kg | Bundibugyo areas, Uganda | ||||||
1.0 ± 0.9 μg/kg | Gulu markets, Uganda | ||||||
290.7 μg/kg | Hoima areas, Uganda | ||||||
2.4 ± 4.0 μg/kg | Iganga markets, Uganda | ||||||
145.5 μg/kg | Kabale markets, Uganda | ||||||
1.0 ± 0.7 μg/kg | Kapchorwa areas, Uganda | ||||||
1.7 ± 0.5 μg/kg | Kasese markets, Uganda | ||||||
1.7 ± 0.5 μg/kg | Kiryadongo areas, Uganda | ||||||
Groundnuts | 6.87 μg/kg | Northern Uganda | |||||
Maize | 6.77 μg/kg | Northern Uganda | ######## | ||||
Millet | 1.46 μg/kg | Northern Uganda | |||||
Sorghum | 10.24 μg/kg | Northern Uganda | |||||
Ochratoxins (OTA) | OTA-A, B, and C | Can benefit humans by their use as antibiotics (penicillins), immunosuppressants (cyclosporine), and in control of postpartum hemorrhage and migraine headaches | Sorghum | 4.4 ± 0.8 n | Kitgum markets, Uganda | ######## | |
3.5 ± 0.7 ng/g | Lamwo markets, Uganda | ||||||
Maize | 3760 ng/g | Kitgum markets, Uganda | |||||
0.3 ± 0.1nng/g | Lamwo markets, Uganda | ||||||
Millet | 1.1 ± 0.3 ng/g | Kitgum markets, Uganda | |||||
1.0 ± 0.3 ng/g | Lamwo markets, Uganda | ||||||
Sesame | 1.5 ± 0.3 ng/g | Kitgum markets, Uganda | |||||
1.4 ± 0.2 ng/g | Lamwo market, Uganda s | ||||||
Groundnuts | 4.89 ng/g | Northern Uganda | |||||
Maize | 0.37 ng/g | Northern Uganda | |||||
Millet | 1.32 ng/g | Northern Uganda | |||||
Sorghum | 7.44 ng/g | Northern Uganda | |||||
Fumonisins | A, B, C and P-series | Are usually esterified with propane tricarboxylic acid to provide a hydrophobic/hydrophilic dichotomy that is unique among the mycotoxins | Fish feed (Farms) | 0.3±0.19 μg/kg | Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda | (109,113–115) | |
Fish feed (Factories) | 0.2 ± 0.24 μg/kg | Lake Victoria Basin, Uganda | -109 | ||||
Peanut paste | 80.2– 0.6 μg/kg | Kampala markets | -104 | ||||
Groundnuts | 1.19 μg/kg | Northern parts of Uganda markets | ######## | ||||
Gibbberella fujikuroi species in harvested maize | 19.4 – 99.8 μg/kg | (109,113–115) | |||||
Millet | 0.76 μg/kg | ||||||
Sorghum | 4.402 μg/kg | ||||||
Trichothecene | Vomitoxin / Deoxynivalenol | Is used as a mycotoxin to induce cytotoxicity in porcine jejunal epithelial cells and study the protective effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the cell viability of host cells. | Groundnuts | 0.153 μg/kg | Northern parts of Uganda markets | (109,113–115) | |
Maize | 0.92793 μg/kg | ||||||
Millet | 0.153 μg/kg | ||||||
Sorghum | 0.823 μg/kg | ||||||
Radionuclides and electromagnetic radiations | Primordial radionuclides (naturally occurring noble gases) | Radon (226Ra) | Uranium-238. | Spider plant | 8.06 Bq/kg | Osukuru phosphate factory areas, Tororo District, Uganda | -117,118 |
Used in making nuclear | Sweet potato | 7.08 Bq/kg | |||||
weapons as a ‘tamper’ | Pawpaw | 3.55 Bq/kg | |||||
material. | Sodom Apple | 9.14 Bq/kg | |||||
Okra | 5.34 Bq/kg | ||||||
Moringa | 4.35 Bq/kg | ||||||
African Basil | 10.02 Bq/kg | ||||||
Aloe vera | 4.88 Bq/kg | ||||||
Ginger | 2.99 Bq/kg | ||||||
18 ± 3 Bqm-3 | Dormitories at Adwari S.S., Uganda | (94,117–119) | |||||
31 ± 3 Bqm-3 | Dormitories at Ogor Seed S.S., Uganda | ||||||
26 ± 3 Bqm-3 | Dormitories at Okwang S.S., Uganda | ||||||
Tororo cement factory area | 26 ± 2 Bqm-3 | School Dormitories at Orum S. S, Uganda | |||||
49 ± 5 Bqm-3 | Dormitories at Otuke S.S., Uganda | ||||||
Tororo mining area | 97 ± 5 Bqm-3 | Tororo district | |||||
Chemical Laboratory tests | 96 ± 4 Bqm-3 | Eastern Uganda | (91,117–119) | ||||
Steel company area | 72 ± 3 Bqm-3 | Steel Works in Eastern Uganda | |||||
Hospital area | 51 ± 2 Bqm-3 | Hospitals in Eastern Uganda | |||||
Hotel | 28 ± 1 Bqm-3 | TLT Hotel in Eastern Uganda | |||||
Residential houses | 92 ± 4 Bqm-3 | Residential houses (closed) in Eastern Uganda | |||||
Homestead | 45 ± 1 Bqm-3 | Houses (Far away) in Eastern Uganda | |||||
Thorium (232Th) | Used in making | Soil mine tailings | 119.3 – 376.7 Bq kg-1 | Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda | -120 | ||
lenses for cameras, scientific | 211.7 ± 17.3 Bq kg-1 | Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda | |||||
instruments, high temperature crucibles, and electrical | 244.4 ± 10.9 Bq kg-1 | Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda | |||||
equipment | Spider plant | 18.60 Bq/kg | |||||
Sweet potato | 15.51 Bq/kg | ||||||
Pawpaw | 7.67 Bq/kg | ||||||
Pumpkin | 11.26 Bq/kg | Medicinal plants in Osukuru, Tororo District, Uganda | |||||
Sodom Apple | 11.57 Bq/kg | ||||||
Okra | 5.98 Bq/kg | ||||||
Moringa | 13.28 Bq/kg | ||||||
African Basil | 7.37 Bq/kg | ||||||
Aloe vera | 3.00 Bq/kg | ||||||
Ginger | 2.24 Bq/kg | ||||||
181.2 ± 66.8 | Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda | -120 | |||||
Outdoor dose rates in air (1.0 m above the ground level) | nGy h-1 | ||||||
167.2 ± 43.0 nGy h-1 | Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda | ||||||
191.6 ± 29.6 nGy h-1 | Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda | ||||||
40K (Potassium-40) | Acts as signaling molecule in a wide variety of processes | Spider plant | 350.17 Bq kg-1 | Osukuru mines, Tororo District, Uganda | -117 | ||
Soil mine tailings | 141.0 – 1658.5 Bq kg-1 | ||||||
Sweet potato | 365.35 Bq/kg | ||||||
Pawpaw | 297.81 Bq/kg | ||||||
Pumpkin | 437.92 Bq/kg | ||||||
Sodom Apple | 419.72 Bq/kg | ||||||
Okra | 343.78 Bq/kg | ||||||
Moringa | 379.21 Bq/kg | ||||||
African Basil | 363.99 Bq/kg | ||||||
Aloe vera | 275.86 Bq/kg | ||||||
Ginger | 361.07 Bq/kg | ||||||
Soil mine tailings | 391.5±46.3 | ||||||
Uranium (238U) | Used in making nuclear | 35.5 – 147.0 Bq kg-1 | Southwestern Uganda | -120 | |||
weapons as a ‘tamper’ | 58.7±8.8 Bq kg-1 | Mashonga Gold mine, Uganda | |||||
material. | Soil mine tailings | 49.7±3.1 Bq kg-1 | Kikagati Tin mine, Uganda | ||||
57.6±2.9 Bq kg-1 | Butare Iron ore mine, Uganda | ||||||
Other emerging pollutants of concern | Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) | Food package material, stain- and water-repellent fabrics, | Wastewater effluent | 1.3 –2.4 ng L−1 | Nakivubo wetland area, downstream of Bugolobi WWTP and upstream L. Victoria, Uganda | (47,48) | |
Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) | non-stick products (e.g., Teflon), polishes, waxes, paints, | Soils | 600 – 3000 pg g-1 | ||||
cleaning products, fire-fighting foams, industrial facilities | Surface water | 1.5 –2.4 ng L−1 | |||||
Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) | (e.g., chrome plating, electronic goods, and oil recovery), | Soils | 480 – 910 pg gL-1 dw | ||||
Perfluotohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) | Landfill wastewater treatment plant, and living | Wastewater effluent | |||||
Perfluoroheptanoate (PFHpA) | organisms (e.g. fish, animals, and humans) due to accumulation | Plant tissues | 0.65 – 0.67 | ||||
Perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) | and persistence over time | Soils | 210 – 460 pg gL-1 dw | ||||
Average Perfluoroalkane sulfonates (∑PFSAs) | Urban runoffs | 8.5 – 14 ngL-1 | |||||
Wet land soil | 4200 – 5300 pg g-1 dw | Nakivubo wetland, Uganda | (47,48) | ||||
Sugarcane soil | 3000 – 7900 pg g-1 dw | ||||||
Maize soil | 1600 – 4900 pg gL-1- dw | ||||||
Microplastics | Microplastics | <1 mm size | Plastic materials utilized by communities | Surface water of L. Victoria | 0.69–2.19 particles/m3 | Surface water of northern L. Victoria, Uganda | -121 |
Disinfection byproducts | Trihalomethanes | Chloroform | Uses as an extraction solvent | Drinking water | 23.07 µg/L | Ggaba water treatment plant and water distribution lines, Uganda | -122 |
Bromodichloromethane | Was formerly used as a flame retardant but now is used as a reagent or an intermediate in organic chemistry. | 10.5 µg/L | |||||
Total trihalomethane (TTHM) | Used in the treatment of water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. | 32.89 µg/L | |||||
Particulates | Particulate matter | PM2.5 | Help in implementation of effective pollution control measures and public health interventions to protect people and improve air quality | Air samples | 152.6 µg/m3 | Kampala, Jinja, Mbarara, kyebando and Rubindi districts, Uganda | (98,123–126) |
Long-term particulate matter | PM10 | 208 µg/m3 | |||||
Gas Phase Pollutants | NO2 | Used in the production of nitric acid, lacquers, dyes, and other chemicals | 24.9 µg/m3 | ||||
SO2 | Used in the preparation of sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, and sulfites | 3.7 µg/m3 | |||||
O3 | Is extensively applied for decontamination purposes | 11.4 µg/m3 |
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