Ristic, B.; Bosnjak, M.; Misirkic Marjanovic, M.; Stevanovic, D.; Janjetovic, K.; Harhaji-Trajkovic, L. The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials. Pharmaceutics2023, 15, 1846.
Ristic, B.; Bosnjak, M.; Misirkic Marjanovic, M.; Stevanovic, D.; Janjetovic, K.; Harhaji-Trajkovic, L. The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials. Pharmaceutics 2023, 15, 1846.
Ristic, B.; Bosnjak, M.; Misirkic Marjanovic, M.; Stevanovic, D.; Janjetovic, K.; Harhaji-Trajkovic, L. The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials. Pharmaceutics2023, 15, 1846.
Ristic, B.; Bosnjak, M.; Misirkic Marjanovic, M.; Stevanovic, D.; Janjetovic, K.; Harhaji-Trajkovic, L. The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials. Pharmaceutics 2023, 15, 1846.
Abstract
Graphene-based nanomaterials (GNMs), including graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots, may have direct anticancer activity or be used as nanocarri-ers for antitumor drugs. GNMs usually enter tumor cells by endocytosis and can accumulate in lysosomes. This accumulation prevents drugs bound to GNMs from reaching their targets, sup-pressing their anticancer effects. A number of chemical modifications are made to GNMs to facili-tate the separation of anticancer drugs from GNMs at low lysosomal pH and to enable lysosomal escape of drugs. Lysosomal escape may be associated with oxidative stress, permeabilization of the unstable membrane of cancer cell lysosomes, release of lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm, and cell death. GNMs can prevent or stimulate tumor cell death by inducing protective autopha-gy or suppressing autolysosomal degradation, respectively. Furthermore, because GNMs prevent bound fluorescent agents from emitting light, their separation in lysosomes may enable tumor cell identification and therapy monitoring. In this review, we explain how the characteristics of the lysosomal microenvironment and the unique features of tumor cell lysosomes can be exploited for GNM-based cancer therapy.
Keywords
graphene-based nanomaterials; graphene-based drug delivery systems; lysosomes; cancer; endosomal/lysosomal escape; lysosomal cell death
Subject
Medicine and Pharmacology, Oncology and Oncogenics
Copyright:
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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