PreprintReviewVersion 1Preserved in Portico This version is not peer-reviewed
Cellular and Humoral Immunity and Infection Responses to SARS-CoV-2:Immune Biomolecular Mechanisms by Case Study within SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis and Other Infections
Version 1
: Received: 21 December 2022 / Approved: 22 December 2022 / Online: 22 December 2022 (04:26:49 CET)
Version 2
: Received: 23 December 2022 / Approved: 27 December 2022 / Online: 27 December 2022 (03:19:48 CET)
Brown, B.; Ojha, V.; Fricke, I.; Al-Sheboul, S.A.; Imarogbe, C.; Gravier, T.; Green, M.; Peterson, L.; Koutsaroff, I.P.; Demir, A.; et al. Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms. Vaccines 2023, 11, 408, doi:10.3390/vaccines11020408.
Brown, B.; Ojha, V.; Fricke, I.; Al-Sheboul, S.A.; Imarogbe, C.; Gravier, T.; Green, M.; Peterson, L.; Koutsaroff, I.P.; Demir, A.; et al. Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms. Vaccines 2023, 11, 408, doi:10.3390/vaccines11020408.
Brown, B.; Ojha, V.; Fricke, I.; Al-Sheboul, S.A.; Imarogbe, C.; Gravier, T.; Green, M.; Peterson, L.; Koutsaroff, I.P.; Demir, A.; et al. Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms. Vaccines 2023, 11, 408, doi:10.3390/vaccines11020408.
Brown, B.; Ojha, V.; Fricke, I.; Al-Sheboul, S.A.; Imarogbe, C.; Gravier, T.; Green, M.; Peterson, L.; Koutsaroff, I.P.; Demir, A.; et al. Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms. Vaccines 2023, 11, 408, doi:10.3390/vaccines11020408.
Abstract
The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was caused by a positive sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, other human coronaviruses (hCoVs) exist, of which Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and SARS-CoV (SARS) showed higher mortality rates without causing a pandemic. As of December 2022, SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in over 6.6 million deaths worldwide through an array of acute to chronic pathologies. Historical pandemics include smallpox and influenza with efficacious therapeutics utilized to reduce overall disease burden. Therefore, immune system process analysis is required to compare innate and adaptive immune system interactions. Lymphatic system organs include bone marrow and thymus using a network of nodes throughout which white blood cells traverse glycolipid membranes utilizing cytokines and chemokine gradients that affect cell development, differentiation, proliferation, and migration processes as well as genetic factors affecting cell receptor expression. Innate processes involve antigen-presenting cells and B lymphocyte cellular responses to pathogens relevant to other viral and bacterial infections but also in oncogenic diseases. Such processes utilize cluster of differentiation (CD) marker expression, major histocompatibility complexes (MHC), pleiotropic interleukins (IL) and chemokines. The adaptive immune system consists of Natural Killer (NK) and T cells. Other viruses are also contributory to cancer including human papillomavirus (cervical carcinoma ), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) ( lymphoma), hepatitis B and C (hepatocellular carcinoma) and human T cell leukemia virus-1 (adult T-cell leukemia). Bacterial infections also increase the risk of developing cancer( e.g. H. pylori). Therefore, as the above factors can cause both morbidity and mortality along-side being transmitted within clinical and community settings, it is appropriate to now examine advances in single cell sequencing, FACS analysis and many other laboratory techniques that allow insights into discoveries of newer cell types. These developments offer improved clarity and understanding that over-lap with known autoimmune conditions that could be affected by innate B cell or T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Thus, this review quantifies and outlines the nature of specific receptors and proteins relevant to clinical laboratories and medical research by documenting both innate and adaptive immune system cells within current coronavirus immunology case study data and other pathologies to date.
Keywords
COVID-19; B Cells; Neutrophils; T Cells; NK Cells; Innate; Adaptive; Cytokines; Chemokines; Adhesion Molecules; Antibody; Cluster of Differentiation; Receptors; Proteins; SARS-CoV-2; Serology
Subject
Biology and Life Sciences, Immunology and Microbiology
Copyright:
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Received:
22 December 2022
Commenter:
Angelo Visigalli
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Interferon α/β, or type I interferon, is produced by a wide variety of cells following viral infection .The existence of this viral evasion mechanism suggests an important role of interferon in virus resistance. In addition to NK cells, interferon γ is released by activated T lymphocytes; it also induces an antiviral state, for example by inducing the Mx gene that generates resistance to the influenza virus in mice, and stimulates antigen processing and presentation in a similar way to type I interferon. Interferon γ is produced by cells T cells that infiltrate neuronal ganglia infected with Herpes simplex virus and are thought to be involved in the transition from the lytic phase to the latent replication cycle of the virus
Received:
22 December 2022
Commenter:
Paul Thomas
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Some excellent valid points of immunological process have been made by Brent Brown in this article.
Of particular interest to myself was the importance made of transverse of glycolipid membranes which I believe to be of utmost importance of viral attack causing disease.
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Thanks Paul,
This was an initial draft and is unfinished. Appreciate the feedback
Watch this space for the final draft which will be a little more comprehensive
Regards,
Brent
Comment 3
Received:
23 December 2022
Commenter:
Timothy j Baer
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Very well put together complete compilation of cause and reaction. I have read many studies over the last 2 years this one is the most complete! Well put together!
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Thanks Timothy,
This was an initial draft and is unfinished. Appreciate the feedback
Watch this space for the final draft
Regards,
Brent
Comment 4
Received:
23 December 2022
Commenter:
Angelo visigalli
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Comment:
Although antibodies can neutralize virions in the extracellular phase and kill infected cells, cell-mediated immunity plays a very important role in the control of viral infections and its main mechanism is T lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity. In summary, the activation of a CMI response requires an innate immunity, with an early innate cell activation, mediated by the recognition of the "danger" signal given by the innate sensors (TLRs, complement, acute phase proteins) and an optimal production of IFN α / β y IL-1, TNFα, IL-8 and IL-6. Therefore, the basic mechanisms that link innate immunity to acquired immunity are: Cooperation between NK-DCs-macrophages with mutual activation and production of IFN-γ, IL-12 and IL-15. Maturation/activation of mDCs acting as APC. IL-12 and IFN-γ produced by innate immunity cells stimulate the Th1 response which sustains the cell-mediated response. CD4+ Th1 activated by IFN-γ and IL-2 secretion, stimulate effective functions of NK and macrophages, together with subsequent specific cytotoxicity of T lymphocytes (CTLs) which complement the viral elimination and generate cytotoxic memory.
Commenter: Angelo Visigalli
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Commenter: Paul Thomas
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Of particular interest to myself was the importance made of transverse of glycolipid membranes which I believe to be of utmost importance of viral attack causing disease.
Commenter:
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
This was an initial draft and is unfinished. Appreciate the feedback
Watch this space for the final draft which will be a little more comprehensive
Regards,
Brent
Commenter: Timothy j Baer
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Commenter:
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
This was an initial draft and is unfinished. Appreciate the feedback
Watch this space for the final draft
Regards,
Brent
Commenter: Angelo visigalli
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
Commenter:
The commenter has declared there is no conflict of interests.
This was an initial draft and is unfinished. Appreciate the feedback
Watch this space for the final draft
Regards,
Brent