Abstract: Topography plays a crucial role in shaping local urban microclimates and can drive the formation of cold-air pools in valley bottoms. This study examines the Eiras Valley (Coimbra, Portugal), a rapidly growing peri-urban area, to identify the conditions under which cold-air pools form and to characterize their spatial and vertical dynamics. Field measurements were carried out using Tinytag Plus 2 data loggers at the surface (≈1.5 m above ground) and mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for vertical profiles, complemented by high-resolution thermal mapping through Empirical Bayesian Kriging. The results show that a nocturnal cold-air pool develops within the valley under clear, anticyclonic winter conditions, persisting into the early morning hours and dissipating after sunrise due to solar heating. In contrast, under overcast or summer conditions, no cold-air pooling was observed. The temperature inversion capping the cold-air pool was found at approximately 275 m altitude, inhibiting vertical mixing and trapping pollutants near the ground. These findings underscore the importance of topoclimatology in urban and regional planning, with implications for thermal comfort, air quality, and public health. The study contributes to urban climate research by highlighting how local topography and seasonal atmospheric stability govern cold-air pool formation in valley environments, supporting the development of mitigation strategies aligned with urban sustainability goals.

Abstract:

Extreme precipitation poses a major natural hazard in the western Mediterranean, particularly along the Valencia coast, where torrential events recur with significant societal impacts. This study evaluates the feasibility and added value of an explicitly spatial approach for estimating return periods of extreme precipitation in the Júcar and Turia basins, moving beyond traditional point-based or micro-catchment analyses. Our methodology consists of progressive spatial aggregation of time series within a basin to better estimate return periods of exceeding specific catastrophic rainfall thresholds. This technique allows us to compare 10-min rainfall data of a reference station (e.g. Turis, València, 29 October 2024 catastrophe) with long-term annual maxima from 98 stations. Temporal structure is characterized using the fractal--intermittency \( n \)-index, while tail behavior is modeled using several extreme-value distributions (Gumbel, GEV, Weibull, Gamma, and Pareto) and guided by empirical errors. Results show that return periods systematically decrease and stabilize as stations are added, forming a plateau with about 15-20 stations, once the relevant spatial heterogeneity is sampled. The analysis of the precipitation in the 2024 catastrophe highlights the role of time concentration of large amounts over short effective durations. Overall, the results demonstrate that spatially-integrated return-period estimation is operational, physically consistent, and better suited for basin-scale risk assessment than purely point-based approaches.

Abstract: Earth observation data has significant potential to support sustainable finance. However, despite the interest and rapidly growing availability of earth observation data, uptake and integration is low within the sector. We explore the barriers experienced by the UK financial sector in using earth observation data for sustainable investment decision-making. We take a reflexive approach to explore the intersection of earth observation technology development, sustainable finance and responsible innovation with the intention of identifying opportunities to share understanding and increase responsible uptake within the sector. From our insights, we set out the stakeholders of earth observation data, their data needs and five challenges to the uptake of earth observation data for sustainable financial decision-making. We develop a baseline of needs across stakeholders and propose the inclusion of responsible innovation principles to support the development of earth observation applications for the sector.

Abstract: Climate change leads to reservoir management challenges especially in areas with high risk of drought and flood. Traditional reservoir rules curves are inappropriate for addressing variation of reservoir inflow. This study presents an integration framework between GCMs from CMIP6 (ACCESS-CM2, MIROC6, and MPI-ESM1-2-LR) under SSP245 and SSP585 scenarios and WEAP, which is validated in accuracy for reservoir inflow and storage capacity. This integration contributes to Hippopotamus Optimization (HO), a technique used to develop Resilience Reservoir Rule Curve (RRRC) for Ubonrat reservoir during 2024-2055 employing dual-objective function that emphasizes the reduction of water shortage and water excess. The results indicate that RRRC developed by HO is more efficient and suitable than Honey Bee Mating Optimization (HBMO) and existing rule curve. After testing the RRRC with historical inflow and future inflow from three GCMs under SSP245 and SSP585, it can reduce average water shortage and demonstrate outstanding efficiency in water excess management. This potential reflects its adaptability under future variation of hydrological condition. This crucial finding illustrates that the integration framework can develop resilient rule curves under uncertainty. HO integrated with various models can be implemented as an optimal framework and have high potential for reservoir operation planning under climate change. The developed methodology can be implemented in other reservoirs to gather additional factors for sustainable promotion of water resource resilience.

Abstract: The Indonesian archipelago represents one of the most tectonically complex regions on Earth, where the convergence and interaction of multiple plates drive ongoing subduction, arc-continent collision, and lithospheric accretion. To unravel the detailed structure and dynamics of this convergent margin, we develop a novel, high-resolution 3-D shear-wave velocity model of the lithosphere and upper mantle. This model is derived from a weighted joint inversion of complementary surface-wave datasets: teleseismic Rayleigh waves from 387 shallow earthquakes (MS ≥ 5.5) recorded across 31 stations, analyzed using a modified two-plane-wave tomography method, and ambient-noise correlations from two years of continuous data at 30 stations, processed with far-field approximation and image-transformation techniques. This integrated approach significantly enhances the resolution of shallow structures compared to previous body-wave tomographic models. Our model provides new insights into the four primary subduction systems. Along the Sunda-Java trench, we document a systematic along-strike transition in slab geometry: a continuous, well-defined slab in the west progressively gives way to increasingly disrupted and thickened structures eastward. This morphological evolution correlates with the subduction of progressively older oceanic lithosphere and is influenced by variations in slab age, dip, and the presence of deep slab tearing. Beneath the Banda Arc, we image an approximately 200 km-thick slab and attribute its dramatic 180° curvature to the mechanical interaction between the northward-subducting Australian plate and a distinct south-directed subduction system beneath the Seram region. In the Molucca Sea, our high-resolution tomography reveals a shallow (~50 km depth) low-velocity zone and details the complex geometry of an active double-sided subduction zone, characterized by asymmetric dips and intense seismicity, which illuminates the dynamics of ongoing arc-arc collision. Finally, beneath the Celebes Sea, a south-dipping slab is clearly resolved under North Sulawesi, while no substantial subduction signature is associated with the Sangihe Arc. Collectively, these findings provide unprecedented structural constraints on the segmentation, deformation, and interaction of subducting slabs in Indonesia. They underscore the control of lithospheric age and complex plate interactions on slab morphology and regional tectonics, offering a refined framework for understanding the geodynamic evolution of this exceptionally complex convergent boundary.

Abstract: International agricultural trade plays a crucial role in balancing the global food supply and demand while facilitating the cross-regional allocation of cropland resources. This study examines the virtual cropland flows embedded in international wheat trade. Utilizing the telecoupling framework and wheat trade data from eight time points between 1995 and 2023, we developed a global virtual-cropland-flow network. Social network analysis (SNA) was used to characterize the structural features and identify telecoupling systems, whereas the quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) regression was applied to analyze the driving factors. The findings reveal that (1) the virtual cropland network shows structural vulnerability and evolutionary complexity amid increasing connectivity, with an overall rise in density and significant fluctuations in the average clustering coefficient and path length. (2) The network exhibits a distinct telecoupling structure. The sending system has shifted from U.S.-Canada dominance to a multipolar pattern involving Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan, and the United States. The receiving systems mainly comprise Asia, Africa, and Latin America, with China as the core inflow country. The United States and France, supported by major transnational agribusinesses, act as key spillover systems, consistently holding a high betweenness centrality. (3) Economic development and foreign demand significantly promote the establishment and intensification of trade relationships between countries. Geographical distance has a dual effect: it strongly negatively influences trade initiation but can be overcome by high complementarity between countries during trade deepening. (4) Although international wheat trade effectively conserves global cropland resources, it also introduces systemic risks and environmental spillovers in some countries. Developing nations that are highly dependent on wheat imports, such as Egypt, are more vulnerable to network fluctuations. By integrating multidisciplinary perspectives, this study provides a scientific basis for constructing sustainable food trade systems and agricultural resource governance. It offers valuable insights for advancing SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), sustainable land systems, and the optimization of global land governance.

Abstract: Investigating the impact of factor mobility (FM) on the economic efficiency of marine fisheries (EEMF) holds scientific reference value for promoting high-quality development of the marine fisheries economy in China's coastal regions. This study is based on panel data from 11 coastal provinces and municipalities in China covering the period from 2008 to 2023. Utilizing Tobit models and mediation effect models, it empirically analyzes the direct and indirect impacts of FM on the EEMF, as well as regional heterogeneity in these effects. Research findings indicate that: (1) The level of FM and the EEMF in coastal regions both exhibit fluctuating upward trends, though regional variations exist across different provinces. (2) The FM in coastal regions enhances the EEMF. For every additional unit of FM, the EEMF increases by 0.0825 units. (3) Technological innovation levels and industrial structure upgrading serve as key pathways through which FM influences the EEMF, acting as mediating variables. (4) This impact exhibits regional heterogeneity, with the Eastern Marine Economic Circle being most significantly affected. The research findings expand the scope of studies on FM and the EEMF, providing practical advice for promoting the optimal allocation of factors in coastal regions and enhancing the EEMF development.

Abstract: On 8 February 2025, an Mw 7.6 strike-slip earthquake ruptured the Swan Islands Transform Fault in the northern Caribbean near its junction with the Mid-Cayman Spreading Center, providing an important offshore case for investigating rupture dynamics along oceanic transform faults. In this study, we jointly apply teleseismic high-frequency back-projection and low-frequency finite-fault full-waveform inversion to image the multi-scale spatiotemporal evolution of the rupture process. Back-projection results reveal a two-stage rupture characterized by an initial sub-shear propagation lasting approximately 20 s, followed by rapid acceleration to supershear velocities of ~5–6 km/s and westward propagation over ~80–100 km. Finite-fault inversion shows that coseismic slip is primarily concentrated within ~20 km west of the epicenter, with a peak slip of ~5.6 m and an overall rupture duration of ~40 s. Comparison between high-frequency radiation and low-frequency slip indicates that most seismic moment was released during the early slow rupture stage, whereas the later fast-propagating segment produced enhanced high-frequency energy but relatively small slip. These observations reveal a pronounced along-strike complimentary relationship between slip amplitude and rupture speed, suggesting a transition in rupture dynamics controlled by variations in fault strength, fracture energy, and/or geometric complexity. By combining high-frequency back-projection with low-frequency finite-fault inversion, we obtain a more complete view of the rupture process of offshore earthquakes, which helps clarify rupture propagation characteristics, including supershear behavior, along oceanic transform faults.

Abstract: Anthropogenic activities represent indirect drivers that generate harmful direct factors, hindering wastewater management (WWM) and causing environmental damage. We analyze this as a process composed of causal relationships where indirect drivers (intangible harmful factors) generate tangible harmful factors. We model this multifactorial process with semantic networks, where the nodes represent intangible or tangible harmful factors, and the interactions between them with causal relationships represented by directed-arcs. We propose an approach that supports decision-making for improving WWM through semantic pathways that describe processes from intangible to tangible harmful factors. A significant advantage of these semantic pathways is their flexibility to modify their structure by adding and removing nodes and arcs, thus allowing for the updating of environmental knowledge. This method facilitates decision-making by providing viable and sustainable solutions to improve WWM performance in coastal tourist municipalities characterized by constant population growth that generates uncontrolled urban sprawl. We applied this approach to the case of the municipality of Acapulco, located on the Mexican Pacific coast. Viable solutions include the restoration of wastewater treatment plants, changes in agricultural practices, mangrove reforestation, and the development of sound urban plans. This methodology can be applied to coastal tourist areas with similar characteristics.

Abstract: Lava flows represent complex thermofluid phenomena in which surface cooling leads to the formation of a solidified surface layer. Understanding the influence of such a surface layer on fluid flow is an important issue in lava flow modeling, and it also shares essential characteristics with a wide range of engineering problems involving surface solidification. However, the role of plastic surface skin in controlling flow deceleration and stopping behavior has not been sufficiently clarified in existing models. In this study, two-dimensional smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations were conducted to investigate the influence of surface skin formation on lava flow dynamics. The temperature dependence of viscosity was introduced to reproduce a plastic surface skin. The skin was represented as a low-temperature, high-viscosity region. Comparisons with simulations without surface skin formation demonstrated that the surface skin exhibits a suppressive effect on the flow. This behavior was consistent with qualitative observations of flowing lava. It was also found that this surface skin caused the successive deceleration characteristic in Bingham fluids. As a result, both the flow velocity and the flowing distance are affected. These results suggest that accurate lava flow simulations require models that incorporate both surface skin effects and non-Newtonian behavior.

Abstract: The conservation status of the Colombian Caribbean dune system was assessed considering the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. The study took place in five locations with a gradient of human disturbance. In each site, twenty-seven plots were established along three transects perpendicular to the coast. Environmental variables such as dune height, slope, sediment physical-chemical attributes, and anthropogenic impact were assessed in each site, while species composition, frequency, and plant cover were determined for each plot. The results show a correlation between natural and anthropogenic factors and the composition and structure of plant communities growing on the beach and coastal dunes. Human disturbances (urbanized areas, construction, burning, debris, trampling, logging, tourism, groins, sewage, roads, garbage, and sediment extraction) were particularly relevant. Plant cover and species diversity were highest in the sites with the lowest human impact, while the contrary occurred in sites where human impact was highest. Furthermore, community structure varied among sites: trees and vines were more frequent in the preserved locations, while shrubs and parasitic plants were more abundant in the disturbed sites. Management alternatives should consider the environmental factors (natural and anthropogenic) affecting vegetation to improve the conservation of plant diversity on coastal dunes along the Colombian Caribbean coast.

Abstract:

Forest ecosystems are vital to global carbon cycling as sinks or sources, while fast-growing, adaptable pines such as P. kesiya and P. oocarpa are central to national carbon sequestration efforts. This study was aimed at determining biomass accumulation variations and carbon stock dynamics between these two species at the age of 16 years in the Viphya Plantations, a prominent timber producing area in northern Malawi. Following the systematic sampling, forest inventory data was collected from 20 circular plots of 0.05 ha each. Above and below ground biomass was estimated using generic allometric models for pine species. Findings indicate that there were significant (P<0.001) differences in biomass accumulation and carbon sequestration between P. oocarpa and P. kesiya plantations. P. oocarpa accumulated more biomass (298.86±12.09 Mgha^-1) than P. kesiya (160.13±23.79 Mgha^-1). Furthermore, P. oocarpa plantation had a higher annual carbon sequestration (32.22±1.30 tCO₂e/ha/yr) as compared to P. kesiya plantation (17.26±2.56 tCO₂e/ha/yr). In addition, the uncertainty was less than 1% and fit within the IPCC’s recommended range (<15%). Therefore, the study has demonstrated that species selection should match management objectives: P. oocarpa maximizes short-to-medium term carbon sequestration and productivity, while P. kesiya supports long-term soil carbon stability. Hence, integrating both optimizes carbon benefits.

Abstract: Sustainable climate adaptation in Bangladesh's highly vulnerable char regions is critically constrained by a financing gap between household commitment and financial capacity. This study diagnoses this “capacity-commitment gap” and proposes a novel blended finance solution. Applying the Contingent Valuation Method to 400 households in Bangladesh’s climate-vulnerable char regions, we employ Probit and Tobit models to analyze Willingness to Pay (WTP). We find strong motivation (65% WTP) but severely constrained capacity, with 90% of contributions capped at ≤400 BDT/month. Econometric analysis reveals that human capital (education) and experiential learning (disaster experience) are more powerful drivers of WTP than income alone, while a paradox of low institutional trust correlates with higher stated contributions—indicating fatalistic self-reliance. Crucially, stated WTP amounts reflect a strict affordability ceiling, not marginal valuation, invalidating user-pays models. We translate this diagnostic evidence into an innovative financial architecture: a Char Resilience Bond. This instrument securitizes the aggregate value of formalized in-kind community co-investment (labor, local knowledge) to credit-enhance and leverage external capital. Our study provides an actionable blueprint for transforming demonstrated local need into bankable adaptation investments, advancing the literature on financing public goods in subsistence economies.

Abstract:

Due to intensified use of fertilizers and inconsiderable organic matter return, the intensive cropping system is evidently changing soil properties. Even though the changes are hardly predictable spontaneously, it could appear with imbalanced soil mineral nitrogen transformation and decreased biological nitrogen immobilization. To address this uncertainty, we investigated the linkage of soil nitrogen transformation and soil microbial community distribution with the mineral nitrogen fertilization in long-term intensive cropping system during 2019-2022. In this study a three-factor (Factor A: rate of nitrogen (100, 150, 180 and 230 kg N ha⁻¹); Factor B: organic fertilizers (0 and 300 kg ha⁻¹); Factor C: liquid biological activator (0 and 0.1 L ha⁻¹)) experiment carried out on a loam soil (Calcaric Luvisol) in intensive cropping system (in rotation: winter wheat, winter wheat, winter rape and winter wheat). At the study site, soil organic carbon was significantly higher at higher rates of nitrogen application combined jointly with application of organic matter and biological activator. Although the rate of nitrogen fertilization was increasing, either in combination with organic matter or biological activator, induced no significant changes in the accumulation of total nitrogen. Thus, with higher rates of nitrogen fertilization, the content of biologically transformed nitrogen significantly increased. As nitrogen is released from organic matter, it was evident that organic matter inputs affected the biological nitrogen transformation. Organic matter inputs also affected the increase soil fungal community, however, with higher nitrogen inputs soil fungal and bacteria ratio was decreasing. This study highlights the significance of sustainably maintaining of nitrogen and organic matter inputs in intensive cropping systems.

Abstract: Despite the Minamata Convention’s targeted reductions in mercury consumption, global trade data exhibits a ‘Compliance Paradox’ where reported flows vanish while artisanal gold mining output remains stable. This research proposes a ‘Mineral Intelligence’ pipeline utilizing unsupervised machine learning to detect illicit mercury trafficking disguised as Electronic Waste (HS 8549). By applying Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM) and Isolation Forest algorithms to UN Comtrade data (2020–2024), we identify a systemic ‘Balloon Effect’: as elemental mercury bans took effect in 2022, illicit volumes were structurally displaced into ‘fake waste’ classifications. Forensic analysis reveals a statistically significant ‘Smuggler’s Signature’ within these flows, characterized by a price anomaly of $24–$80/kg (mirroring liquid mercury markets) and a Net to-Gross weight ratio exceeding 90%, physically corresponding to standard 34.5 kg steel mercury flasks. Furthermore, Node2Vec and spectral embedding analysis exposes a ‘Decoupling Chasm’ (Manifold Distance: 2.06) that topologically separates financial gold hubs from mercury-intensive mining zones. Finally, Recursive LSTM forecasts predict a ‘burnout’ of the current HS 8549 smuggling vector (-618M kg/yr), warning of an imminent regime shift toward chemically masked commodities.

Abstract: Agriculture in Europe needs to progress towards a new business system, where sustainable agricultural practices are the driving force behind this business. These sustainable practices will contribute to Europe's climate neutrality by 2050. Carbon farming has practices that help to sequester CO2 in the soil and mitigate CO2 from the atmosphere. Increasing SOC (Soil organic carbon) in soil through carbon farming practices will promote soil quality and fertility, which is essential for soil ecosystem services protection. This study aims to identify new proposals, such as technical and policy instruments, that help promote carbon farming practices through a bibliometric analysis of carbon farming, as there is a gap in bibliometric review studies on carbon farming in the scientific literature. The bibliometric analysis results showed that the principal common terms include “carbon farming,” “carbon sequestration, “climate change” and "Australia” and there is a lack of terms related with carbon credit market and adaptation from farmers. Australia is the country with the most published carbon farming documents. Carbon farming aims to be an eco-agrosystem to be broadly embraced by farmers.

Abstract: The European Green Deal aims to make Europe the world's first carbon-neutral continent, and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 seeks to achieve neutrality in land degradation. For that, soil, a depletable natural resource, requires adequate protection and preservation, which calls for its management through an environmentally conscious framework. Soil supplies food regulates water and nutrient cycles, and healthy soils also store carbon. Its ecosystem services are under pressure, making it difficult to maintain its health and preserve biodiversity. Despite existing legal instruments, soil degradation is on the rise and is mostly addressed indirectly in the EU governance measures, without a harmonized soil legislation before the 23rd of October 2025, when the Directive on Soil Monitoring and Resilience was approved by the European Parliament. This directive will complement existing soil legislation and will contribute to healthy soils as soil starts to be treated as a protected natural resource. This study aims to carry out a critical analysis of Portuguese and European Union soil legislation, based on the information available in the SoiLEX database. The aim was to evaluate the contributions of that legislation to soil health, particularly regarding soil threats that are listed in that database. It was found that Portuguese legislative acts only make indirect references to threats to soil, in a vague manner related to soil salinization, and no reference is made to soil acidification. European Union legislation makes more direct references to the SoiLEX database threats to soil, but for some soil threats, the references are still indirect. Moreover, there is no reference as a SoiLEX Topic to salinization, compaction, and acidification of soil. The contribution of this study is to reveal the absence of soil protection visibility on EU and Portuguese legislation and can be used to revise and update the soil related legislation.

Abstract: ligocene rocks and fluids of A-1X well were conducted for source rock and fluid characterization and implying the suitable geological sites for CO2 storage from high-salinity water in sandstone reservoirs based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis, vitrinite reflectance measurement, bitumen extraction, hydrocarbon fractionation, gas chromatography, stable carbon isotope, formation water and X-Ray Diffraction analyses. Shale source rocks reveal fairly good potential of hydrocarbon generation. Compositions of gas sample in gas-related zones 1010-1110m are mainly composed of CH4, following C2+, N2, and a little content of CO2 and no noticeable of H2S. Carbon isotopes of oil and gas samples reveal the organic matters mainly derived from sapropelic and little humic sources, entering the mature stage to oil window phases. The formation water is classified as Calcium-Chloride type that contain high concentrations of total dissolved solid, salinity, and K+, Na+ and Cl- cations. This formation water is associated with deep source, and close system that are effective conditions for a large pool with good sealing capacity and not impacted by dissolution of the salt rock around. Most sandstones comprise very high visual porosities including high quartz, plagioclase and calcite minerals that are favorable conditions for subsurface pore space and CO2 injection in over saturated fluids. The popular presence of brittle minerals in the upper part of strongly fractured basement indicates this could be a good sandstone reservoir. The finding is identification of suitable candidate for storing CO2 in the saline aquifer under the active petroleum system with current oil and gas accumulations.

Abstract: Aridity represents a fundamental climatic constraint governing water resources, eco-system functioning, and agricultural systems in transitional climate zones. This study examines the spatial organization and temporal variability of aridity and thermal con-tinentality in North Macedonia using observational records from 13 meteorological stations distributed across contrasting altitudinal and physiographic settings. The analysis is based on homogenized monthly and annual air temperature and precipitation series covering the period 1991–2020. Aridity and continentality were quantified using the De Martonne Aridity Index (IDM), the Pinna Combinative Index (IP), and the Johansson Continentality Index (JCI). Temporal consistency and trend behavior were evaluated using Pettitt’s nonparametric change-point test, linear regression, the Mann–Kendall test, and Sen’s slope estimator. Links between aridity variability and large-scale atmospheric circulation were examined using correlations with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The results show a spatially consistent and statistically significant increase in mean annual air temper-ature, with a common change point around 2006, while precipitation displays strong spatial variability and limited temporal coherence. Aridity patterns display a strong altitudinal control, with extremely humid to very humid conditions prevailing in mountainous western regions and semi-humid to semi-dry conditions dominating lowland and southeastern areas, particularly during summer. Trend analyses do not reveal statistically significant long-term changes in aridity or continentality over the study period, although low-elevation stations exhibit weak drying tendencies. A mod-erate positive association between IDM and IP (r = 0.66) confirms internal consistency among aridity indices, while summer aridity shows a statistically significant relationship with the NAO. These results provide a robust climatic reference for North Mace-donia, establishing a first climatological baseline of aridity conditions based on multi-ple indices applied to homogenized observations, and contributing to regional assess-ments of hydroclimatic variability relevant to climate adaptation planning.

Abstract: The catchments that contain ecologically critical wetlands supplying the Mohale and Polihali dams under the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) are increasingly threatened by expanding agriculture, mining activities, and uncontrolled livestock grazing. Hence, the present study was conducted to assess heavy metal contamination and wetland health across the three higher-altitude sub-catchments in Lesotho: Senqunyane, Khubelu, and Sani. A total of 24 water samples were collected from six wetlands in March 2025 to determine concentrations of copper, iron, manganese, lead, and zinc in accordance with APHA standards. Pollution Load Index (PLI) and Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI) were calculated to evaluate water quality. All sites exceeded the HPI safety threshold of 100, with Sani Top showing the highest PLI (5.54), indicating severe contamination primarily driven by manganese and lead. Lead emerged as the dominant pollutant due to its low permissible limits, exacerbating HPI scores across wetlands. Heavy metal concentrations generally declined with increasing altitude, with lead and copper displaying the steepest decreases, while manganese peaked at mid-altitudes (2750 m), potentially linked to local geochemical processes and organic matter decomposition. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) explained 40.6% of total data variance, revealing tight clustering at higher altitudes (3000 m), reflecting uniform, geogenically controlled water quality, whereas lower elevations displayed more variable and anthropogenically influenced patterns. Despite high-altitude sites appearing chemically stable, they carry higher dissolved ions, suggesting treatment needs for water hardness. In contrast, low-to-mid elevation wetlands showed more variable and hazardous metal loads, necessitating targeted management strategies including buffer zones, liming, and pollution source tracing. Findings highlight land use and hydrology in wetland water quality. Continuous monitoring of Lesotho’s alpine wetlands is vital to address heavy metal pollution, guide evidence-based policy, and support prioritized monitoring, mitigation, and restoration for sustainable downstream water management.